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Previous research indicates that spirituality expressed in tradition-specific terms may initiate, invigorate , and integrate Muslim religious commitments, suggesting a 3-I Model of Religious Spirituality. In a test of this model, Islamic seminarians, university students, and office workers in Iran (N = 604) responded to Muslim Experiential Religiousness (MER), Religious Orientation, and mental health scales. The tradition- specific spirituality of MER displayed correlation, moderation, and mediation results with Intrinsic and Extrinsic Personal Religious Orientations that pointed toward initiation, invigoration, and integration effects, respectively. MER also clarified the ambiguous implications of the Extrinsic Social Religious Orientation. These data most generally confirmed the heuristic potential of the 3-I Model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With Islamic seminarians in Iran (N = 243), use of empirical translation scheme procedures transformed the 'non-judgmental' psychological language of the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) into a more 'judgmental' measure reflecting a Muslim ideological surround. Muslim mindfulness and the MAAS correlated positively with each other, and both predicted stronger religious commitments and better mental health. Multiple regression procedures confirmed that the two forms of mindfulness combined to explain variance in religious and psychological functioning. Both scales also mediated associations of religious and psychological independent variables with both religious and psychological dependent variables. Muslim mindfulness tended to offer a more sensitive assessment of seminarian functioning. These data further illustrated how research that brings religious and psychological perspectives into empirically guided dialogues can enhance understandings of both. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Psychological aggression against wives is a social problem in all societies. To analyze possible predictive factors of psychological aggression against wives, this study examined 398 women selected through multi-stage stratified sampling techniques. Research participants responded to the Conflict Tactics Scale, questions about childhood insult experience, and the Five-Factor Personality Inventory (NEO-FFI). Results showed that 86 % of respondents experienced psychological aggression from their husbands during the last year. Results also revealed that 46.7 % and 43.3 % of respondents were targets of insults during childhood by their mothers and fathers, respectively. Childhood insult experience and neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness and conscientiousness personality traits predicted psychological aggression by husbands against their wives. Multinomial logistic regression revealed that neuroticism was a significant predictor of minor and severe psychological aggression against wives. The results highlighted the importance of childhood insult experience and personality traits in explaining the severity of psychological aggression against wives in Tehran, Iran. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the religious and psychological implications of religious coping in Iran. University students ( N = 224) responded to the Brief Positive and Negative Religious Coping Scales along with measures of Religious Orientation, Integrative Self-Knowledge, Self-Control, Mindfulness, Self-Compassion, Self-Esteem, Guilt, Shame, and Self-Criticism. As in previous research elsewhere, Positive Religious Coping was stronger on average than Negative Religious Coping, and Positive and Negative Religious Coping predicted adjustment and maladjustment, respectively, In addition, this study demonstrated that direct relationships between Positive and Negative Religious Coping appeared to be reliable in Iran; that Positive Religious Copings was broadly compatible with, and Negative Religious Coping was largely irrelevant to, Iranian religious motivations; and that Negative Religious Coping obscured linkages of Positive Religious Coping with religious and psychological adjustment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Muslim religious coping may include distress mobilisation effects that explain why adaptive and maladaptive forms of religious coping correlate positively rather than nonsignificantly, as they usually do in the West. In this study, 147 Iranian university students responded to Islamic Positive Religious Coping (IPRC) and Punishing Allah Reappraisal (PAR) Scales along with Religious Orientation, Perceived Stress, and mental health measures. IPRC and PAR correlated positively, and procedures accounting for their covariance were essential in disambiguating their implications. IPRC predicted stronger Intrinsic and Extrinsic Personal Religious Orientations, but PAR displayed no relationship with religious motivations. PAR pointed toward broadly negative mental health influences with IPRC displaying limited ties with adjustment. PAR partially mediated some Perceived Stress relationships with poorer mental health. These data offered some support for a Muslim Distress Mobilization Hypothesis, but also uncovered issues that require further clarification. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In the more individualistic West, guilt promotes and shame interferes with empathic sensitivity. This investigation sought to determine if similar results would appear in the presumably more interdependent cultural context of Iran. Iranian university students (N = 220) responded to guilt and shame scales along with measures of other-oriented empathy and empathic distress. As in the West, guilt predicted greater other-oriented empathy, shame correlated positively with empathic distress, and relationships with integrative self-knowledge, self-esteem, covert narcissism, depression, and anxiety confirmed guilt and other-oriented empathy as adaptive and shame and empathic distress as maladaptive. Integrative self-knowledge mediated shame but not guilt relationships with other measures. In contrast to Western findings, Iranian women did not score higher on shame, and guilt correlated positively with empathic distress. These data confirmed Iranian parallels with the previously reported dynamics of empathy and moral affects in the West, but Iranian differences also pointed toward the need for additional research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This investigation analyzed Islamic spirituality as measured by a Muslim Experiential Religiousness Scale. Iranian university and seminary students (N = 351) responded to this instrument along with the Psychological Measure of Islamic Religiousness (PMIR) and Perceived Stress and Self-Esteem scales. Muslim Experiential Religiousness correlated predictably with all PMIR subscales, Perceived Stress, and Self-Esteem, and mediated almost all relationships of the PMIR Islamic Beliefs subscale with religious functioning. When evaluated by participants, Muslim Experiential Religiousness items proved to be "rational" relative to their Muslim religious ideals. Women in an Islamic seminary scored higher on Muslim Experiential Religiousness than Islamic women in a more general university, and Muslim Experiential Religiousness also mediated the many other religious differences observed between these two student groups. These data most importantly identified the Muslim Experiential Religiousness Scale as a useful instrument for testing hypotheses about the dynamics of Muslim spirituality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Investigations into Muslim psychology sometimes rely on measures emphasizing religious attitudes, with the Muslim Attitudes toward Religion (MAR) scale being an example. To capture the experiential aspects of Islamic religiosity, a recently developed Muslim Experiential Religiousness (MER) scale recorded an experienced submission to, love of, and closeness to God that define an ideal in Muslim religious consciousness. In a sample of 299 students from the University of Tehran and the Qom Islamic Seminary School, this study administered the MAR and MER, along with scales assessing mysticism, religious orientations, depression, anxiety, and satisfaction with life. Results demonstrated incremental validity of the MER over the MAR in predicting most of these religious and psychological adjustment variables. The MER also mediated and moderated some MAR relationships with religious and psychological outcomes. These data pointed toward a dissociation of the attitudinal and experiential features of Muslim psychology and confirmed the MER as a valuable index of Muslim religious experience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In numerous studies conducted in Western societies, shame as measured by the Test of Self-Conscious Affect (TOSCA) has correlated with maladjustment whereas the TOSCA Guilt Scale has predicted adjustment. The present investigation sought to determine if such linkages would also appear in the Muslim cultural context of Iran. Iranian university students (N = 132) responded to Shame and Guilt Scales from the third version of the TOSCA, along with an array of personality measures. Shame correlated negatively with adjustment and positively with maladjustment. Guilt displayed an opposite pattern of relationships. As in previous Western investigations, women scored higher than men on guilt, but the expected female elevation in shame failed to appear. Shame, nevertheless, interacted with gender to predict relationships with poorer psychological functioning in women, but not in men. These data most importantly confirmed that the TOSCA Shame and Guilt Scales in Iran display implications similar to those observed in the West and that gender differences in Iran may deserve additional research attention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Comparative rationality analysis formally examines the incommensurable social rationalities that theoretically exist within religions and the social sciences according to the ideological surround model (ISM) of the psychology of religion. This study extended these procedures to a new cultural context: 220 Iranian university students responded to the Religious Problem-Solving Scales developed by Pargament et al. (1988). As hypothesized, the Collaborative Problem-Solving Style was consistent, and the Self-Directing Style inconsistent, with Iranian Muslim religious and psychological adjustment. The Deferring Style had ambiguous implications. Comparative rationality analysis demonstrated that sample interpretations of these styles explained greater variance in adjustment than did the original scales. These procedures also yielded the unexpected discovery that the Deferring Style included a secular as well as a religious form of Iranian rationality. These data most importantly support the ISM claim that 'future objectivity' requires empirical analyses of the incommensurable rationalities operating within the psychology of religion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Self-knowledge is a Muslim psychological ideal, but social theory suggests that the dynamics of narcissism and self-esteem may challenge the stability of Muslim society. In Iranian university students, an Integrative Self-Knowledge Scale displayed relationships with narcissism, self-esteem, and empathy that reflected relative mental health; and the Narcissistic Personality Inventory included factors that pointed toward adjustment as well as maladjustment. Evidence that narcissism predicted positive forms of self-functioning was more obvious in men than in women. Outcomes further confirmed that self-knowledge is as an adaptive process in Iran and that narcissism and self-esteem may have noteworthy implications for understanding Muslim society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of International Journal of Psychology is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In three Iranian samples, the brief Post-Critical Beliefs Scale was administered along with an array of psychological and religious measures. Factor analysis identified the expected transcendence and symbolism dimensions of post-critical beliefs. These two factors correlated negatively with each other, and transcendence tended to predict greater and symbolism lower levels of religiousness. Transcendence also had more positive and symbolism more negative mental health implications. Significant interactions between these factors in explaining variance in other variables supported the validity of Wulff's (1997) typology of religious attitudes in Iran. Unexpected interactions in predicting cognitive openness were especially noteworthy in demonstrating that western understandings of the psychology of religion may not always generalize to the Muslim context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In theory, mindfulness has a role to play in resolving intercultural conflicts. This suggestion rests upon the relatively untested presumption that mindfulness operates similarly across cultures. In a test of this presumption, university students from two countries that are often in conflict at the governmental level, Iran ( N = 723) and the United States ( N = 900), responded to the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (Brown and Ryan Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84(4):822–848, ), along with an array of other psychological measures. This Mindfulness Scale displayed structural complexities in both societies, but a measurement invariant subscale was nevertheless identified. Similar cross-cultural evidence of concurrent validity was obtained in relationships with wide-ranging measures of adjustment. Nonsignificant linkages with Public Self-Consciousness and Self-Monitoring demonstrated discriminant validity in both societies. These data identified mindfulness as a cross-culturally similar psychological process that could plausibly have a role in resolving intercultural conflicts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, the self-reported mystical experience of Muslims was correlated with constructs relevant to positive psychology. Iranian university students responded to the Extrovertive, Introvertive, and Religious Interpretation factors of the Mysticism Scale; to the Basic Need Satisfaction and Mindfulness measures associated with Self-Determination Theory; and to instruments recording Attributional Complexity, Obsessiveness, and Quest religiosity. Religious Interpretation and Extrovertive factors correlated positively whereas the Introvertive factor correlated negatively with the Self-Determination and adaptive functioning that are emphases of positive psychology. Research that analyzes mystical experience within the context of positive psychology may, therefore, be useful in clarifying the psychology of religious experience across traditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of International Journal of Psychology is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

An Integrative Self-Knowledge (ISK) Scale measures tendencies to engage in a cognitive process of uniting past, present, and desired future self-experience into a meaningful whole. In the present project, 288 Iranian university students responded to the ISK and Big Five scales and rated their dormitory roommates on these characteristics as well. These procedures most importantly revealed a positive correlation between self- and peer-reported ISK. Self-reported ISK also predicted higher levels of self-reported Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, and Openness to Experience, and this pattern of relationships appeared with the peer-report data as well. In these results and also in correlations of the self- with peer-report scales, associations of ISK with greater Emotional Stability and Openness to Experience were especially noteworthy. This study confirmed the validity of the ISK scale and the adaptive behavioral significance of what it measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The authors used Iranian (N = 723) and American (N = 900) samples to develop an Integrative Self-Knowledge Scale for measuring a temporally integrated understanding of processes within the self. They administered this new instrument, the Mindfulness Scale (K. W. Brown & R. M. Ryan, 2003), the Reflective and Experiential Self-Knowledge Scales (N. Ghorbani, M. N. Bing, P. J. Watson, H. R. Davison, & D. L. Lebreton, 2003), and additional sample-specific measures to 3 separate groups of university students in each society. The Integrative Self-Knowledge Scale displayed internal reliability and measurement equivalence, along with convergent, criterion, discriminant, and incremental validity. This new instrument may be useful in promoting cross-cultural research in positive psychology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Iranians responded to Quest and Extrinsic Religious Orientation Scales in order to assess their validity and factor structure within a Muslim context. A sample of 251 Iranian university students received Persian versions of these instruments along with Intrinsic Religious Orientation, Interpersonal Reactivity, Constructive inking, Need for Cognition, and Openness to Experience Scales. Analysis of these data revealed that the Quest Scale contained four factors and validly measured Iranian religious commitments. Extrinsic and Intrinsic Religious Orientation Scales also clarified the psychological implications of religion in Iran. Extrinsic factors corresponded to American data; and as in previous Pakistani studies, Extrinsic-Personal scores were higher on average than those for the Intrinsic Orientation, which in turn was higher than the Extrinsic-Social motivation. These findings confirmed that the Quest and Intrinsic Scales along with the Extrinsic factors may be useful in the construction of a Muslim psychology of religion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined relationships of self-reported Mysticism with dispositional Depression and Anxiety in Iranian Muslims. The sample contained 80 women and 51 men undergraduates who volunteered to participate (M age=20.5 yr., SD=2.0). Participants responded to the Hood Mysticism Scale and to the Costello and Comrey Depression and Anxiety Scales. Scores on the Religious Interpretation dimension of mystical experience correlated negatively with those on Depression, explained a similar relationship observed for Extrovertive Mysticism, and moderated the otherwise positive relationship between Introvertive Mysticism and Anxiety. Moderation occurred when Entrovertive Mysticism correlated negatively rather than positively with Anxiety in those who scored high on Religious Interpretation and very high on the introvertive factor. These data suggested possibilities for reconciling conflicts that have appeared between philosophical interpretations of Introvertive Mysticism and previous self-report data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to examine the validity and the incremental validity of recently developed Reflective and Experiential Self-knowledge Scales. Along with measures of the Five Factors and of psychological adjustment, 201 male Iranian managers responded to the Self-knowledge Scales along with tests relevant to emotional intelligence, including the Trait Meta-mood Scale and the Constructive Thinking Inventory. As hypothesized, Self-knowledge Scales predicted greater self-reported emotional intelligence. Multiple regression also confirmed the incremental validity of these scales, showed each explained a separate source of variance, and supported the presumed temporal dynamics that theoretically underlie these constructs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the validity and incremental validity of the Constructive Thinking Inventory in a sample of Iranian managers. These 159 men were 39.9 yr. old (SD = 2.5) and volunteered to participate in a project in which they responded to the Constructive Thinking Inventory, the Big Five Factors, the Costello and Comrey Depression and Anxiety Scales, and the Perceived Stress Scale. Numerous findings confirmed the validity of the Constructive Thinking Inventory, and the Global Constructive Thinking subscale displayed incremental validity. These data supported the validity of the Constructive Thinking Inventory and its associated theoretical assumptions in a sample of Iranian managers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reflective and Experiential Self-Knowledge Scales were administered to Iranian managers along with measures of the Five Factor Model, anxiety, depression, perceived stress, and attributional complexity. Experiential Self-Knowledge correlated positively with the number of promotions earned by these managers. Both scales were associated with higher levels of Agreeableness, Openness to Experience, and Extraversion and, in general, with greater self-reported mental health. Each Self-Knowledge Scale displayed evidence of incremental validity. These data confirmed that the Reflective and Experiential Self-Knowledge Scales deserve additional research attention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The authors measured Internal State Awareness (ISA) and Self-Reflectiveness (SR) factors from the Private Self-Consciousness Scale in Iranian (N = 325) and U.S. (N = 401) university students. In both societies, positive correlations with Need for Cognition and Internal Control and negative correlations with external control and obsessive thinking confirmed ISA as an adaptive form of self-consciousness. In partial correlations in which the authors controlled for ISA, SR was associated cross-culturally with greater Obsessive Thinking. This outcome conformed with the authors' expectations that SR would have negative mental health implications, but other data revealed complexities in the SR association with adjustment. Differences between samples failed to yield any simple support for F. Fukuyama's (1992) suggestion that Iranians might be more "alienated" (pp. 236-237) in their psychological functioning. The present study most importantly offered cross-cultural evidence in favor of the claim that better measures of an introspective self-awareness need to be developed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Iranian and American samples, a new Negatively Reinforcing Personal Extrinsic Religious Motivations Scale contained four factors. These four Personal-Negative factors correlated positively with the Allport and Ross Intrinsic and Extrinsic Religious Orientation Scales. In correlations with measures of an inner psychological awareness, Intrinsic and Extrinsic constructs predicted greater Self-Consciousness and Self-Knowledge in Iran, but not in the United States. In both cultures, however, intrinsicness was associated with lower Alexithymia and greater Emotional Intelligence whereas the opposite was true of extrinsicness, especially after partialing out the Intrinsic Scale. A few findings suggested that Extrinsic motivations might have positive mental health implications, but linkages with Anxiety, Depression, Perceived Stress, and Self-Esteem overwhelmingly depicted intrinsicness as adjusted and extrinsicness as maladjusted. Each Personal-Negative factor displayed evidence of incremental validity. Factor analysis of all religious orientation variables in each sample yielded two components, a general religious motivation factor and a bipolar Intrinsic dimension. Iranians were higher on several Extrinsic measures. Americans displayed higher Intrinsic scores. These data suggested that religious motivation was more highly integrated within the Iranians and that Allportian concepts supplied a productive conceptual framework for understanding Iranian Muslim as well as American Christian religious commitments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Iranian students responded to the 'Muslim Attitudes Towards Religion Scale' (MARS) along with measures of psychiatric symptoms, religious motivation, and mystical experience. The MARS contained three factors and these factors and the full scale were internally reliable. They also correlated positively with an extrinsic religious orientation, even more robustly with greater religious interest and an intrinsic religious orientation, and less consistently with slightly higher levels of self-reported mystical experience. The MARS failed to predict self-reported psychiatric symptoms, but partial correlations uncovered both direct and then inverse linkages with such symptoms after controlling for the intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, respectively. Theology students with a concentration in Islamic philosophy displayed the highest MARS scores. The MARS, therefore, was a valid measure of Iranian religiosity, but in Iran, and perhaps in other Muslim societies as well, motivational factors may be critical in determining how the MARS correlates with mental health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: This study explores the intricate web of symptoms experienced by academically gifted high school students, focusing on procrastination, rumination, perfectionism, and cognitive flexibility. The well-being of these gifted adolescents remains a pivotal concern, and understanding the dynamics of these symptoms is vital., Methods: A diverse sample of 207 academically gifted high school students from Mashhad, Iran, participated in this study. Using convenience sampling, participants from grades 10, 11, and 12 were included, with detailed assessments conducted through questionnaires measuring the mentioned symptoms., Results: Our network analysis uncovers compelling insights into the interplay of these symptoms: Procrastination, though moderately central, exerts significant influence within the network, underscoring its relevance. Cognitive flexibility, while centrally positioned, curiously exhibits a negative influence, potentially serving as a protective factor. Negative perfectionism emerges as the keystone symptom, with both high centrality and a positive influence. Rumination displays substantial centrality and a positive influence, indicating its role in symptom exacerbation. Positive perfectionism, moderately central, lacks direct influence on other symptoms., Conclusion: This network analysis provides a nuanced understanding of the relationships among procrastination, rumination, perfectionism, and cognitive flexibility in academically gifted adolescents. Negative perfectionism and cognitive flexibility emerge as critical factors deserving attention in interventions aimed at enhancing the well-being of this unique group. Further research should explore causal relationships to refine targeted interventions., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Married Iranian couples (N = 210) responded to the Integrative Self-Knowledge Scale along with a measure of marital satisfaction, the International Personality Item Pool (IPIP) Big Five, and an index of interpersonal problems. Integrative self-knowledge correlated positively with marital satisfaction, positively with all but the extraversion Big Five traits, and negatively with three indices of interpersonal problems. Integrative self-knowledge also mediated a number of personality relationships with marital satisfaction. Spouse-ratings of personality confirmed the adaptive implications of integrative self-knowledge for marriage. Linkages with questionnaire response styles supported the description of integrative self-knowledge as a measure of both self-insight and self-development. Results confirmed the potential of integrative self-knowledge for studying self-regulatory processes and suggested that the enhancement of self-knowledge may be a useful goal in efforts to strengthen marriages.

This study examined the validity of Experiential and Reflective Self-knowledge Scales in a sample of Iranian factory workers. Both scales were administered to 321 male and 12 female workers (M age= 35.6 yr., SD= 8.9) along with the Basic Need Satisfaction at Work Scales, the Work Climate Questionnaire, and measures of Perceived Stress and Self-esteem. Scores on the two self-knowledge measures correlated with all other variables consistent with the claim of Self-determination Theory that self-insight is associated with a more complete satisfaction of basic needs. In a number of multiple regression analyses, Reflective and Experiential Self-knowledge combined to explain variance in other measures. These data further supported the validity of the two new Self-knowledge Scales.

This study examined the incremental validity of Hardiness scales in a sample of Iranian managers. Along with measures of the Five Factor Model and of Organizational and Psychological Adjustment, Hardiness scales were administered to 159 male managers (M age = 39.9, SD = 7.5) who had worked in their organizations for 7.9 yr. (SD=5.4). Hardiness predicted greater Job Satisfaction, higher Organization-based Self-esteem, and perceptions of the work environment as being less stressful and constraining. Hardiness also correlated positively with Assertiveness, Emotional Stability, Extraversion, Openness to Experience, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness and negatively with Depression, Anxiety, Perceived Stress, Chance External Control, and a Powerful Others External Control. Evidence of incremental validity was obtained when the Hardiness scales supplemented the Five Factor Model in predicting organizational and psychological adjustment. These data documented the incremental validity of the Hardiness scales in a non-Western sample and thus confirmed once again that Hardiness has a relevance that extends beyond the culture in which it was developed.

Like psychology, philosophy apparently operates from a commitment to the belief that self-knowledge should be a goal of disciplinary and personal development. Iranian teachers and students of philosophy responded to a Philosophical Orientations Scale created for this study that assessed the possible content of a high school philosophy course, along with instruments measuring self-knowledge, need for cognition, the five-factor model, anxiety, depression, and perceived stress. As the authors hypothesized, self-knowledge predicted higher levels of a philosophical orientation, even after controlling for the variance explained by need for cognition and openness to experience. Philosophical orientations and self-knowledge were also correlated with psychological adjustment, and teachers scored higher than students on these two sets of constructs. These data supported the hypothesis that personal and disciplinary interests in an adaptive self-knowledge converge in philosophy.

Self-knowledge is an ideal not only within psychological theory and practice but also within the religious and philosophical foundations of many cultures. In 6 studies conducted in Iran and the United States, the authors sought to construct and to validate scales for measuring two facets of self-knowledge. Experiential self-knowledge was defined as an ongoing sensitivity to the self in the present. Reflective self-knowledge was described in terms of personal efforts to integrate experience within self-schemas developed in the past. Thirteen-item experiential self-knowledge and reflective self-knowledge scales were created by the authors using samples of Iranian and American university students. A confirmatory factor analysis verified this 2-factor structure in a second study, and these results were replicated in a 3rd study. Correlations with a broad array of self-report variables established the two scales as valid measures of adjustment. Both displayed adequate test-retest reliability. Correlations with peer reports suggested that the two factors had behavioral implications in both cultures. Reflective self-knowledge proved to be as important as educational abilities in predicting the academic performance of Americans who were motivated to attend class. Experiential self-knowledge and reflective self-knowledge also interacted to predict better grades. In short, the experiential self-knowledge and reflective self-knowledge scales operationalized cross-cultural personality processes that deserve additional research attention.