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The purpose of this study is to determine the spatial thinking ability of high school students using indicators from Sharpe-Huynh model. These indicators include analysis, spatial interaction, scale, representation, comprehensiveness, and application. Furthermore, this study examined the effect of Earthcomm learning on student's spatial thinking ability. This study research employs a quantitative study, utilizing a quasi-experimental design with a non-equivalent control group. The study is conducted among school students in Padang City, West Sumatera Province, Indonesia. The research population consisted of 287 students, divided into eight research groups. Data on students' spatial thinking ability were collected through the Sharpe-Huynh model of spatial thinking ability test. Before further analysis, the data were assessed for normality and homogeneity. The experimental group utilized earth science in the community (Earthcomm) learning model, while the control group employed conventional learning. The research data were analyzed using Mann-Whitney U test. The findings revealed that the spatial thinking ability of high school students ranged from low to moderate. The Earthcomm learning model demonstrated a significant impact in improving spatial thinking skills. The impact of Earthcomm learning on enhancing spatial thinking abilities among high school students is elaborated in the following article.

Learning geography in Indonesia philosophically aims to develop spatial literacy. Students must improve spatial literacy to form reasoning skills and apply spatial concepts in real life. Applying Gersmehl's spatial learning can improve students' spatial literacy through syntax arranged based on spatial aspects. The use of google earth helps students to complete case studies of disaster mitigation materials without the need to go directly to the field. This quasi-experimental research refers to the posttestonly control group design by comparing the posttest of spatial literacy in the experimental and control classes. This study involved students of class XI IPS SMAN 1 Blitar City. The instrument is a five-point description test based on indicators of spatial literacy in disaster mitigation materials standardized with validity and reliability tests. The research data were analyzed using normality, homogeneity, and hypothesis tests. The data tested were in the form of posttest scores for spatial literacy in the experimental and control classes. The results of Gersmehl's spatial learning influence spatial literacy. The use of LKPD bridges the implementation of spatial learning syntax with Google Earth as a geospatial medium. The implementation of syntax in spatial learning is interrelated with spatial literacy indicators, thereby increasing students' spatial literacy based on experience and spatial recognition.

In learning during the current epidemic, students cannot meet face to face on campus, and learning geometry in universities is a dreadful lesson before the pandemic. Both at UPGRIS and other private universities so far, students are required to use a compass and ruler in making flat shapes and building spaces so they have to face to face with the lecturer, but now it can't because it is still online. So it is necessary to make learning media that aims to help students sketch flat shapes and build spaces virtually with practice making it online with a van Hiele theory approach, so the resulting product is truly capable of teaching. The result of this study is a virtual geometry lab application with van Hiele theory that is valid according to material and media experts with an average score of 93 and can be used in classrooms. At PGRI University Semarang, 96% of students agreed that virtual media improved students' spatial ability.

3D geometry is an essential concept in mathematics because it relates to real-world experiences and numerous mathematical topics. However, some students still have difficulty understanding this geometry. Therefore, this study aims to identify and describe students' epistemological obstacles to the dimensions of representation, spatial structure, and measurement of 3D geometry in junior high school. This study was carried out using an exploratory case study design with the purposive sampling method used to obtain data from 26 students from three junior high schools in Indramayu Regency, Indonesia, through tests and interviews. The data collected were analyzed, synthesized, and described based on the framework that had been prepared. The result showed that students experience epistemological obstacles in performing a series of 3D geometric thinking tasks. They experience difficulties translating the representative model from 2D to 3D and determining the number of unit cubes of the 3D shape. Meanwhile, in the measurement dimensions, students experience difficulties in calculating surface area and comparing volumes of 3D geometric shapes. Therefore, to minimize the epistemological obstacle experienced by students, this study suggests teachers or prospective teachers pay attention to the characteristics of the material to be taught to students.

High school teachers are mentors and facilitators that must be concerned about their students' formal thinking abilities. Students may not take a conservation task seriously because they perform operations without consulting. This necessitates modifying the learning process to increase student motivation. Therefore, this study aimed to examine students' mathematical spatial literacy through project-based blended learning with the cognitive conflict strategy. The study sample comprised 129 students, including 66 and 63 in the experimental and control classes, respectively, divided into the low, medium, and high levels. The findings showed that the experimental class students using project-based blended learning with the cognitive conflict strategy had higher mathematical spatial literacy than those in the control class using problem-based learning. Project-based blended learning with the cognitive conflict strategy and problem-based learning students at the high and moderate levels differed in their ability to increase their mathematical spatial literacy. However, low-level students are comparable in their ability to increase their mathematical spatial literacy.

The relationship between spatial conceptions and students' spatial abilities is still rarely studied specifically, even though this is the basis for students to think in learning geometry. This paper aims to explore spatial abilities and the development of spatial ability theory, discusses the relationship between spatial conceptions in students' understanding, and how to develop HLT (Hypothetical Learning Trajectory) in transformation geometry learning. HLT design consists of three stages: initial design, experimental, and retrospective analysis. The results of HLT are then refined into LIT (Local Instructional Trajectory). Then this paper present the empirical results of the perceptions of twenty 9th grade students in one of Islamic private school in Kabupaten Kuningan, West Java, Indonesia, towards the corresponding geometric and math questions. Literature review analysis was used to analyze the retrieved articles. At the end of the paper, we explain and discuss how to apply mathematical conceptions in learning geometry. This research is expected to be a guidance for teachers to develop learning in accordance with the students' spatial thinking process in studying geometry.

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of Blended Project-Based Learning (BPjBL) with the STEM approach to spatial thinking skill and geography skill and student's attitudes in implementing the learning. The research design used quasi-experimental research and independent t-test and paired t-test as data analysis. The selection of population was used random sampling techniques to second-year students of National Senior High School 1. Population in this study was the social science class at SMA Negeri 1 Kepanjen Malang, Indonesia. The students were divided into two groups, experimental group from social class 1, which used the BPjBL and control group from social class 3, which used the conventional method. The results showed that there was a significant influence of BPjBL with STEM approach to spatial thinking skill and geography skill. The changes in students' attitudes also shown significantly towards spatial thinking skill and geography skill. This research proved that the application of project-based learning could develop spatial thinking skill and geography skill as 21st-century learning objectives.

The 21st century demands that geography students think critically about orientation processes and analyze problems from a spatial perspective. This experiment presents data on how much influence the SPBL model has on critical thinking students of geography. The learning procedure carried out by students is oriented towards spatial problems, then formulates spatial problems, then collects and compiles data/information, then analyzes, discusses the results, ends with building communication. 78 students of the Department of Geography, State University of Malang were the subjects of this study. The critical thinking indicator from Ennis becomes the basis for making test questions for data collection. The use of the Independent sample t-Test with SPSS 23 for data analysis purposes. Based on the research results, it was seen that there was an increase in students' critical thinking after learning with the SPBL model. As many as 25% of students were able to think very critically. However, based on the Gain-Score calculation, it shows effectiveness <40%. Thus, it becomes a recommendation for teachers to apply relevant learning models so that students are more critical and active in the geography learning process. Another suggestion for designers is to further evaluate the effectiveness of the SPBL model so that the quality of this product is better and can have a more significant impact.

Spatial thinking has roles to facilitate learners to remember, understand, reason, and communicate objects and the connections among objects that are represented in space. This research aims to analyze the spatial thinking process of students in constructing new knowledge seen from the field-independent cognitive style learners based on Action-Process-Object-Schema (APOS) theory. APOS theory is used to explore spatial thinking processes which consist of mental structures of action, process, object, and schema. This research is qualitative research with an exploratory method. It provided the students' opportunity to solve problems alternately until the method found the most appropriate subjects for the research objectives. The subjects were 2 students of Mathematics Education in the fourth semester of Universitas Muria Kudus Indonesia. The data collection techniques were started by distributing the validated and reliable spatial thinking questions, the cognitive style question, and the interview. The applied data analysis consisted of data reduction, presentation, and conclusion. The findings showed (1) spatial thinking process of holistic-external representation typed learners were indicated by the representative thinking element, abstract-illustrative figure expression to communicate and complete the tasks correctly, (2) spatial thinking process of the holistic-internal representation typed learners were indicated by the representative means, having ideas, connecting with the previous knowledge in the forms of symbols and numbers, and finding the final results correctly although incomplete.

This study aims to help concrete thinkers learn science through the use of Piagets' cognitive processes (CPs) during scientific inquiry. A total of 203 fourth-grade students participated as volunteers in a pre-post control group study. The students were from urban, remote rural, and suburban regions of Indonesia. Data analysis demonstrated that students were at a low level of concrete reasoning. However, CPs significantly enhanced students' academic performance in science classes from low to medium and even high categories. CPs also promoted concrete thinkers from lower to higher levels of concrete reasoning. Study results suggest that teachers should attend to the concrete reasoning development of elementary school students and promote their levels of cognitive processing to help them achieve academically in science.

This paper explores the spatial dimension of Fleming's Left Hand Rule (LHR), commonly-used in Physics instruction for determining the direction of force using the left hand's thumb, forefinger and middle finger. A new instrument was developed to gauge students' ability to coordinate their fingers in 3D space (egocentric frame of reference) based on representations of tasks on paper/screen (allocentric frame of reference). The LHR scores from a sample of 530 Grade 10 and 11 students revealed a significant correlation to standard spatial reasoning measures, with a reliability of 0.77. About 90% of the students scored less than 10 points out of 22, highlighting the relevance of the spatial skills required for articulating the LHR. Science students performed significantly better than non-Science students. The manipulation of the LHR was strongly influenced by the degree of angular disparity between the body frame and task-defined frame and the kinaesthetic constraints required to rotate the triad of fingers as a perpendicular frame.

This study aims to determine the relationship of junior high school students' spatial and mathematical logical intelligence based on understanding the concepts. Spatial intelligence indicators in this study are reviewed from students' abilities in using images as a tool for solving problems, connecting data with concepts that have been held, and finding patterns in solving problems. On the other hand, the indicators of students' mathematical logical intelligence is observed by looking at students' abilities to mention and understand information that is known in a problem, to draw up a plan of completion and to do mathematical calculations correctly. The indicators of understanding concepts are restating a concept, providing examples and non-examples of concepts, and applying concepts or algorithms in problem solving. The research method in this research is the Ex Post Facto correlational type, with using a purposive sampling as the sampling technique. The results of the data analysis obtained a correlation coefficient is around 0.93 with 86% R square. The relationship between the spatial intelligence variables is shown by the understanding of concepts by 86%, the level of the relationship, with the correlation coefficient is 0.93, where mathematical logical intelligence with an understanding of 80%, with the level of the relationship of 0.89, and the relationship of spatial intelligence with a mathematical logical is described by a 77% level of the relationship, with 0.88, as the correlation coefficient. The results showed that there was a very strong relationship between spatial intelligence and logical mathematics in terms of understanding students' concepts.

Spatial ability is an ability to visualize an object in space. In learning geometry, the spatial ability is required to solve geometric problems. One of the learning models that can be applied in the learning process to improve students' spatial ability is Van Hiele learning model. Van Hiele learning model is a learning model based on Van Hiele level thinking theory. This research aimed to examine whether the Van Hiele model can give better support to the student's spatial abilities in platonic solid topic. This research was quasi-experiment research with post-test only control group design, which was conducted for one month. The population of this research was the eighth-grade students of junior high school in the Seririt sub-district. By using random sampling techniques, 64 students were chosen as samples and distributed into two classes. The control group was taught by using conventional learning model, while the experimental group used Van Hiele learning model. Data were obtained through essay test for spatial ability at the end of the research. The data were analyzed by using the right side one tailed t-test. The result of the data analysis showed that the mean score of the experimental class was which was higher than the mean score of the control class. Therefore, Van Hiele learning model could give a positive impact to improve students' spatial ability rather than conventional learning.

Every student must have and develop spatial abilities to be successful in learning geometry. The rapid development of technology also allows teachers to use Macromedia Flash as an alternative in developing and improving students' spatial abilities. This study aimed to determine and describe the improvement of the students' spatial ability after getting geometry material by using Macromedia Flash at MTsN Model Banda Aceh. This research used a quantitative approach with a quasi-experimental design and one group pretest posttest design. The population of this study was all students of class VIII MTsN Model Banda Aceh with random sampling as the sample selection techniques so that the selected sample was the students of class VIII-5. The data collection in this study was carried out using a spatial ability test consisted of pretest and posttest questions. The gained data were analyzed with SPSS version 17 with paired sample t-test and percentage. The results showed that there was an improvement in students' spatial ability after having geometry material learning by using Macromedia Flash at MTsN Model Banda Aceh. Besides, the improvement of students' spatial ability based on indicator of perception spatial was 61.1%, mental rotation indicator was 55.6%, and indicator of visualization spatial was 66.7%.

Geometry is one of the topics that students must comprehend in mathematics. However, in reality, the students' ability concerning geometry is relatively low due to their low spatial reasoning ability. The ELPSA framework is one of the solutions to develop students' spatial reasoning abilities. This study aimed to describe students' spatial reasoning ability and the impact on retention through the ELPSA framework. This research was part of the ELPSA framework research and development. The subjects were four students, chosen from 25 Grade 7 students from one of the junior high schools in Banda Aceh. They were selected based on the percentage of spatial reasoning aspects mastered. The instrument used was a semi-structured interview that was preceded by a written test. The results showed that the four subjects could manipulate objects in their mind to change the shape of D-3 to D-2. However, one of them could not determine its relation precisely. Three out of four subjects could imagine the appearance of an object from different perspectives. Besides, two out of four subjects could visualize objects to determine the number of unit cubes contained in the solid geometry and only one subject could imagine objects from various perspectives to determine the surface area but did not use the given measurement.

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of learning models and multiple intelligences on mathematics achievement. It was conducted at SMPN 5 Kendari, Southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia. The research method used a quasi-experimental design. Data on mathematics achievement and multiple intelligences were collected using multiple-choice tests. The collected data were analyzed using a two-way ANOVA. The findings of this study showed that student mathematics achievement taught with PBL model was higher than those taught with direct learning model; mathematics achievement of students with mathematical logic intelligence was higher than those with spatial intelligence; there was an effect of interaction between learning models and multiple intelligences on student mathematics achievement; mathematics achievement of students with spatial intelligence taught with PBL model was higher than students taught with direct learning model; mathematics achievement of students with mathematical logic intelligence taught by PBL model was higher than those taught with direct learning model; there was no significant difference in mathematics achievement between students with spatial intelligence and mathematical logic intelligence taught by PBL model; mathematics achievement of students with mathematical logic intelligence was higher than those with spatial intelligence taught by direct learning model.

The spatial sense ability of elementary school students is still low. Concrete-Pictorial-Abstract (CPA) approach is considered able to improve students' spatial sense abilities. This research aims to find out the increase of spatial sense of elementary school students who learned with CPA approach and conventional learning in terms of overall students as well as categories of high, medium, and low Mathematical Prior Ability (MPA). This research uses a quasi-experimental method with pretest and posttest control design in Mathematics subject with the topic of 3D geometry for 131 fifth grade elementary school students in Kotabaru District, Karawang Regency and Cipeundeuy District, Subang Regency. This research was conducted by dividing the students into two groups, namely students who received learning using CPA approach as the experimental group and students who received conventional learning as the control group. Descriptive analysis and inferential analysis results showed that there was an increase of spatial sense in students who learned with CPA approach, which was better than students who received conventional learning. Thus, learning using the CPA approach can improve and develop spatial sense abilities of elementary school students.

The purposes of the current study were to develop students' spatial orientation skills using Virtual Mathematics Kits (VMK) and to evaluate VMK as a form of digital media in terms of spatial orientation. This study involved 42 lower-class and 47 higher-class elementary school students as the intervention group and 36 lower-class and 41 higher-class students as the control group. The intervention group was administered spatial orientation activities for 10 weeks. These activities were performed using a VMK to facilitate solving spatial problems. In the end of activities, spatial orientation instruments administered to compare spatial orientation ability on each group. The findings of this study, spatial orientation activities using a VMK improved students' spatial orientation skills. More specific, VMK provides more significant effect on higher-class students. Finally, VMK allows students to explore many ideas and perspectives to solve various spatial problems. VMK can be used as a digital media that helps students to develop spatial reasoning.

Factors of Critical Spatial Thinking for a geography metacognition assessment are a moot point among experts and practitioners. This study aims to develop an understanding about such factors by using a structural equation model to generate a comprehensive and accurate assessment instrument for metacognition in geography. The study is a research and development project for a Thesis. The current research involves 595 participants, consisting of experts and practitioners from eight representative Senior High Schools in Indonesia. The study occurred between August 2017 and February 2019. The results from a confirmatory factor analysis generated 15 indicators for three dimensions of critical spatial thinking. The three dimensions are concept comprehension, concept application, and creativity in producing ideas; and they are used to generate an assessment for metacognition in geography. The indicators involve concept application, location, distance, approach, equation, disaster mitigation, concept map, interaction, map instrument, aura, region, hierarchy, pattern, spatial association, and inquiry. The factors were assessed by nine experts and obtained 0.85 on the Aiken validity index. A chi-square of 330.47, df = 90, p-value = 0.000, and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation = 0.071, t = 4.78, and GFI = 1.96 in the significance level of 5%, proves the items fulfil both the analysis and construct dimensions, and also have a significant influence on the dimensions and factors of metacognition.

The present study determined the effects of instructional models and spatial intelligence on students' mathematics learning outcomes after controlling for their initial competence. The study was conducted at Senior High School (SHS) 6 Kendari, Indonesia using a quasi-experimental method designed by level 2×2. Samples consisted of 40 students selected randomly. The data were analyzed using either two-way ANCOVA at the 0.05 significance level. The results showed that mathematics learning outcome of students who were taught by integrative instruction was higher than those taught by direct instruction after controlling the initial competency. There is an interaction effect between the instructional model and spatial intelligence on mathematics learning outcome. Learning outcome of students who have high spatial intelligence and taught by integrative instruction was higher than those taught by direct instruction, and learning outcome of students who have low spatial intelligence and taught by integrative instruction was lower than those taught by direct instruction.

Geographic skills area major competency that must be developed through spatial thinking. This paper describes whether learning material questions about Geographic Information System (GIS) in geography textbooks contains components of spatial thinking: concepts of space, use of representation tools, and reasoning processes. This study uses a descriptive qualitative approach with content analysis design. We conducted the evaluation of learning material questions about GIS on four geography textbooks of senior high schools in Indonesia by coding using taxonomy of spatial thinking. The 92 questions evaluated in this study contained multiple choice and essay practice questions. We identified questions by the following steps: 1) classifying concepts of space questions into non-spatial, spatial primitives, simple spatial, complex spatial; 2) determining the nature of tools of representation in the questions--use and non-use; 3) classifying processes of reasoning from each question into input, processing, and output. The results showed that the majority of GIS learning material questions are not based on spatial thinking. Seventy-one percent of questions are non-spatial, 73 percent of questions did not use maps to represent spatial thinking, and 67 percent of questions are low-level reasoning process (input). These findings indicate that GIS learning material questions in geography textbooks do not include the complete spatial thinking component. As a result, the lack of a complete spatial thinking component in GIS learning material questions in geography textbooks results in less developed geography competency among students. Learning material questions should contain the components of spatial thinking at a high level, such as using complex spatial on concepts of space, using tools for representation, and using output for reasoning processes. Therefore, for geographic textbooks, the National Education Standards Agency must develop standardized questions focused on spatial concepts to represent high-level spatial thinking.

The aims of this research was to find the effectiveness of learning devices based on realistic mathematics education, as well as improving mathematic spatial ability and motivation of SMP Negeri 2 Pulo Bandring students' grade IX. This research is a development research using the Dick & Carey development model. The results of the analysis of the data obtained indicate that learning materials based on realistic mathematics education met the criteria of effectiveness, it was found that students completed classically = 85% of students got a minimum score of =75, achievement of learning objectives, positive students responses and learning time equal to ordinary learning. Based on the results of the study, it was suggested that mathematics teachers make an effort mathematica learning using learning devices based on realistic mathematics education.

The aim of this research was to examine the effect of GeoGebra-aided REACT strategy on the understanding of geometry concepts and to investigate the interaction between learning strategy and spatial ability on the understanding of geometry concepts. This research involved 60 students of Grade 8 at a private Junior High School in Borong, province of East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia. The quasi-experimental research with control class without pre-test was done. Prior to the experiment, spatial ability test was conducted to group students into high and low spatial ability. The research data were obtained from a test consisting of five questions to measure students' understanding of geometry concepts. The data were then analyzed using two-way ANOVA. The results of the research show that 1) the GeoGebra-aided REACT strategy leads to a higher achievement of the students on the understanding of geometry concepts if compared to student in conventional groups (expository), and 2) there was no interaction effect between the learning strategy and spatial ability on students' understanding of geometry concepts. The research recommended that GeoGebra-aided REACT strategy can be used in mathematics teaching in Junior High School to improve students' conceptual understanding of geometry concepts.

Mathematical representation is an important skill in mathematics learning that enables students to interpret and solve problems with ease. However, building confidence in such a skill can be difficult for some students, especially for those who lack self-motivation skills. Therefore, this study examines the effects of the think-talk-write strategy and the expository strategy on students' abilities in mathematical representation in order to understand the relationship between mathematical representation and self-efficacy. In this study, a Quasi-Experiment design comprising the experiment group and the control group was applied. Learning process by Think-talk-write (TTW) strategy was implemented in the experiment group only. On the other hand, the learning process in the control group was accomplished without the TTW strategy. The sample in this study comprised students of the eighth grade studying geometry and spatial relations at a public junior high school. For the purpose of this study, two groups were created: 1) an experimental group, in which the think-talk-write strategy was employed, and 2) a control group, in which the expository approach was applied. In addition, mathematical representation ability and self-efficacy scale tests were used as the instruments of this quasi-experimental study.

This study aims to know the characteristics of mathematical communication of pre-service primary school teachers. The material used as the object of research is geometry. It requires the ability of algebra and spatial skills. The area of trapezoid is selected as the topic since it is perceived as the most complex of all plane shapes studied in primary school. It is because the calculation of the area of trapezoid entails three variables. The ability of mathematical communication involves the ability to write and explain. This ability is examined based on the background of students' secondary school. The subjects of this study were 15 students of Primary Teacher Education, STKIP Al Hikmah Surabaya in academic year 2017-2018. The types of mathematical communication are grouped according to their characteristics. Written communication is sharpened by oral communication. The results were analyzed to investigate the relevance of such abilities with the subjects' background of their secondary school (SMA, SMK, or MA). The results indicate that the characteristics of written communication consist of: (1) narrative, (2) procedure, and (3) dialogue. Meanwhile, the characteristics of oral communication consist of: (1) lecture, (2) instructional, and (3) discussion. Pre-service teachers graduated from SMA have better mathematical communication skills than those from SMK and MA.

Study of this research investigates the role of visuospatial representation using Wimba model to improve student's conceptual mastery based on gender in learning Human Urinary System. The method used in this research was experimental research with matching pretest-posttest comparison group design. The sample was taken based on gender classes consisting of boys class (n=21) and girls class (n=9) in one of Bilingual School in Bandung. The quantitative data of this research was investigated through the objective test, while the supportive qualitative data gathered through "Likert-Scale." The conceptual mastery of both classes measured based on Bloom's taxonomy cognitive domain through an objective test. Data processing was done by independent sample t-test. The result of this research shows that there are significant differences in conceptual mastery improvement between girl class and boy class by using visuospatial representation as a model. The research indicates that girl class is outperformed in conceptual mastery almost in each cognitive domain than boy class, and girl class also shows more positive responses toward learning using visuospatial representation than boy class.

Students' spatial ability plays an important role in instruction with dynamic and static visualizations. This research was aimed at describing 1) the difference in learning achievement between the students who learned from dynamic visualization and static visualization, 2) the difference in learning achievement among students who have high spatial ability and those who have low spatial ability, and 3) the interaction between type of visualization and spatial ability on learning achievement. This research used the non-equivalent control group quasi-experimental design. The sample consisted of 115 eighth grade students in Singaraja, Indonesia. The data were collected by learning achievement test and Paper Folding Test. The data were analyzed using ANCOVA. The results showed that: 1) there was a significant difference in learning achievement between the students who learned from dynamic visualization and static visualization; 2) there was a significant difference in learning achievement between the students who have high spatial ability and those who have low spatial ability, and 3) there was no interaction between visualization type and spatial ability on learning achievement. Therefore, the different combination of the types of visualization and sequence of presentation and relation with individual characteristic can be elaborated more in the further research.

This research attempted to find whether spatial intelligence (without context) has a correlation to (contextual) spatial ability and affects geographic skills as crystallized ability (Gc). It employed the descriptive method with subjects including students at the primary, junior high, and senior high schools. The data were collected through two instruments, namely test and questionnaire. Data of test results were processed by tabulation technique and correlated for the scores of spatial intelligence, spatial ability, and geographic skills. The results show that spatial intelligence (Gf) tended to increase from the level of primary to junior high and to senior high school level, whereas spatial ability (Gc) and geographic skills (Geo-s) tended to decrease. Despite the decline, all three (Gf, Gc, and Geo-s) had the potentials for improvement. Thus, geography teachers are encouraged to participate in improving students' spatial and geographic skills, so students can develop their potentials optimally for geographic skills and future career development.

This study discusses the application of geospatial technology in learning geography in Indonesia in terms of concepts, curriculum, and implementation. The application of geospatial technology in learning geography in Indonesia has been integrated into the national curriculum. This can be seen from the content of components of spatial thinking in the basic competencies of knowledge and basic competencies of skills. However, there are still some obstacles to the implementation of geospatial technology, such as the lack of facilities for learning geospatial technology. It is indicated by the absence of GIS software in computer laboratories. Also, geography teachers are less able to use geospatial technology due to a lack of training in the use of geospatial technology. Therefore, the synergy between the government and schools is needed to enhance the application of geospatial technology by the objectives of the geography curriculum.

The principal issue of this study is "how does the society dynamic of Yogyakarta in facing the polemic of traditional, modernity, and social study values which can be developed in social study learning at school? The general aim of this study is to find how the society dynamic phenomenon which happened in Yogyakarta mainly in Kraton, Kauman, and Malioboro areas in facing the polemic of traditional and modernity. In specific, this study's aims are : (1) to analyse and find what kind of traditional values which is owned and keep by Yogyakarta people, (2) why these values are chosen?, (3) to find the dominant social strengths which able to motivate people dan find what the social study values which can be built for learning the social study at school.This study is done in Yogyakarta society such as Kraton, Kauman and community workers in the informal sector in Malioboro area. This study used phenomenology approach. Data are collected by using in depth interviewing, participation observation, and write the document. Data analysis is focus on data collection or data reduction, data serving, and drawing the conclusion or data verification in the term of interactive analysis model. Data validity technique used: 1) the extension of working time, 2) data triangulation used various different sources and methods. The result of the study is (1) the Yogyakarta society dynamic phenomenon is influenced by historical background, tradition and culture value, dominant factors which play a role in changing process including the foreign capital in the term of plantation and agriculture industries, mass media (newspapers), education, modern bureaucracy, ideology (religion). The traditional value that is keep namely Islamic symbolic cosmology as a foundation of the Yogyakarta Palace establishment, the symbolic philosophy "manunggaling kawulan Gusti" in "Grebeg Mulud" tradition ceremony ("sekaten"), title cosmic value dan King symbols, modern bureaucracy value, Kauman society traditional value, society changing value of community workers in the informal sector in Malioboro, and the Sultan Hamengku Buwono IX attitude value. Values that can be developed as literation in learning the social study at school are (1) geographical value (spatial awareness, (2) spiritual religion value, (3) historical value, (4) culture value (tradition), (5) democratization value, (6) multicultural value, (7) confident value and open attitude to progress, (economy value), and (9) struggle and nationality values. The recommendation of this study is that the theme of social dynamic of Yogyakarta in facing the polemic of traditional and modernity values is relevant being accommodated as literation in social study learning at various school levels such as primary and high school. To local government both province and city, village and Kauman society and to mainly society figures in specific and Yogyakarta society in general to give understanding and awareness the importance of the special value of Yogyakarta society culture. To education and culture department, one thing that must be done is to revitalize the education curriculum by putting the society traditional values into favorite subjects which based on special of Yogyakarta.

This study aimed to describe the profile of secondary school students with high mathematics ability in solving shape and space problem in PISA (Program for International Student Assessment). It is a descriptive research with a qualitative approach, in which the subjects in this study were students of class VIII SMP N 1 Banda Aceh. The results show that in solving the problem PISA on shape and space, high mathematics ability students were able to identify the problem by making the information known from PISA issues related to the shape and space content.

The aim of this study is to design learning activities that can support students to develop strategies for the addition of number 1 to 20 in the first grade by involving students' spatial structuring ability. This study was conducted in Indonesia by involving 27 students. In this paper, one of three activities is discussed namely ten-box activity. This activity was aimed to introduce and develop ten-structure to be a students' strategy in addition of number 1 to 20. The method was design research by designing learning activities involving spatial structuring ability. PMRI underlined the context and activity. The result of the study indicates that ten-box activities can help students to develop ten-structure as a strategy in addition of number 1 to 20. As a recommendation, PMRI can be implemented as an approach of teaching and learning addition 1 to 20.

This study aimed to explore whether the integration of virtual reality and augmented reality used in a specially designed science book could improve the students' science concept learning outcomes. A true experimental research design was conducted to check the effectiveness of the specially designed book in terms of learners' achievement. The sample for this study consisted of 80 fifth-grade students, divided into a control and an experimental group. The results revealed that using mixed reality (augmented reality and virtual reality) as a learning supplement to the printed book could improve students' learning outcomes, particularly for low spatial ability students. Finally, recommendations for future practices and research are discussed.

This paper reports a study on designing and testing an instructional sequence for the teaching and learning of the concept of angle in Indonesian primary schools. The study's context is employing the current reform movement adopting "Pendidikan Matematika Realistik Indonesia" (an Indonesian version of Realistic Mathematics Education). Using a design research approach, a hypothetical learning trajectory was developed and a set of activities was performed to gain a better understanding of how the third grade students' (aged 8-9 years) understanding of the concept of angle may be fostered. Theoretical development is driven by an iterative process of designing instructional activities, performing teaching experiments and conducting retrospective analysis in order to contribute to local instruction theory on the concept of angle. The concept of angle emerged and evolved during long term classroom activities of visual field activities involving vision and spatial representations. Classroom events were recorded, group works were video-taped and student materials were collected. Qualitative analysis of a teaching experiment showed that by conducting the visual field activities involving vision and constructing spatial representations, students could develop their understanding of the concept of angle as well as their initial understanding of the notion of vision lines and blind spots.

This research aims at studying on how students develop their spatial visualisation abilities. In this paper, one of five activities in an ongoing classroom activity is discussed. This paper documents students' learning activity in exploring the building blocks. The goal of teaching experiment is to support the development of students' spatial visualisation ability and to study about how students visualise and interpret the building blocks. The analysis of the activity is focused on exploring how the building blocks activity develop students' spatial visualisation, various way of students' interpretation and visualisation of building blocks, and how teacher affect the way students visualise and interpret the building blocks. The results of this study show that the building blocks activity supports the development of students' spatial visualisation ability.

We examine how rectangular array model can support students' spatial structuring in learning multiplication. To begin, we define what we mean by spatial structuring as the mental operation of constructing an organization or form for an object or set of objects. For that reason, the eggs problem was chosen as the starting point in which the students could recognize such an arrangement. Geoboard was also be used as a tool to visualize the array. This research focused on a design research that was conducted in Surya Institute Program (SIP) in which investigated 12 Papuan students (between 10 and 11 years old) in connecting rectangular array model with the idea of multiplication. The result showed that rectangular array model indeed support the students to count things more efficient, able to see the structural similarities of arrays and created spatial structures for sets of objects.

Previous research shows that speed is one of the most difficult in the upper grades of primary school. It is because students must take into consideration two variables; distance and time. Nevertheless, Indonesian students usually learn this concept as a transmission subject and teacher more emphasizes on formal mathematics in which the concept of speed given as "distance by time" rigorously. A sequence of learning activities with toy cars context was designed based on students' development and Realistic Mathematics Education (RME) principles which are guided reinvention, didactical phenomenology and emergent modelling. Using their own models, students are able to explain a proportion among distance and time in speed as well the relationship of it.

Many prior researches found that most of students in grade five tended to have difficulty in fully grasping the concept of volume measurement because they have to build their competence in spatial structuring. The unit of volume "packing" measurement must be integrated and coordinated in three-dimension. On the other hand, it is revealed the errors that students made on the volume measurement tasks with three dimensional cube arrays are related to some aspects of spatial visualization, such as the skill to "read off" two-dimensional representation of solid objects. For those reasons, this research is aimed to develop classroom activities with the use of spatial visualization tasks to support students' spatial structuring in learning volume measurement. Consequently, design research was chosen as an appropriate means to achieve this research goal. In this research, a sequence of instructional activities is designed and developed based on the hypothesis of students' learning processes. This research was conducted in grade 5 of SD Pupuk Sriwijaya Palembang, Indonesia.

Few researches have been concerned about relation between children's spatial thinking and number sense. Narrowing for this small research, we focused on one component of spatial thinking, that is structuring objects, and one component of number senses, that is cardinality by determining quantities. This study focused on a design research that was conducted in Indonesia in which we investigated pre-school children's (between 2 and 3.5 years old) ability in making structured arrangement and their ability to determine the quantities by looking at the arrangements. The result shows us that some of the children were able to make such arrangement. However, the children found difficulties either to determine quantities from those arrangements or to compare some structures to easily recognize number of objects.

Ideas about temporal (and spatial) scale impact students' understanding across science disciplines. Learners have difficulty comprehending the long time periods associated with natural processes because they have no referent for the magnitudes involved. When people have a good "feel" for quantity, they estimate cardinal number magnitude linearly. Magnitude estimation errors can be explained by confusion about the structure of the decimal number system, particularly in terms of how powers of ten are related to one another. Indonesian children regularly use large currency units. This study investigated if they estimate long time periods accurately and if they estimate those time periods the same way they estimate analogous currency units. Thirty-nine children from a private International Baccalaureate school estimated temporal magnitudes up to 10,000,000,000 years in a two-part study. Artifacts children created were compared to theoretical model predictions previously used in number magnitude estimation studies as reported by Landy et al. ("Cognitive Science" 37:775-799, 2013). Over one third estimated the magnitude of time periods up to 10,000,000,000 years linearly, exceeding what would be expected based upon prior research with children this age who lack daily experience with large quantities. About half treated successive powers of ten as a count sequence instead of multiplicatively related when estimating magnitudes of time periods. Children generally estimated the magnitudes of long time periods and familiar, analogous currency units the same way. Implications for ways to improve the teaching and learning of this crosscutting concept/overarching idea are discussed.

Spatial ability plays a crucial role in the study of geometry. When related to the context of mathematics, especially geometry, it becomes apparent that having and developing spatial abilities is crucial. Academic achievement, particularly in understanding mathematics and geometry, was closely linked to spatial ability. The researcher conducted a study using the Systematic Literature Review (SLR) method to uncover the latest information on spatial ability in learning mathematics. Summarizing and interpreting a total of 18 accredited journal articles from various databases in the period 2016-2021, the researcher produced a review presented in a graph, including the year of publication, education level, a method used, sample size, and demography. Spatial abilities in mathematics learning have received considerable attention in research. However, the number of studies on spatial abilities in mathematics learning has decreased in the last two years. In addition, spatial abilities in early childhood have not been optimized. This is disappointing because spatial abilities are closely related to children's cognitive development. This literature review recommends conducting research on spatial abilities in various provinces in Indonesia, emphasizing the significance of high spatial abilities for good mathematical performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study is to determine the spatial thinking ability of high school students using indicators from Sharpe-Huynh model. These indicators include analysis, spatial interaction, scale, representation, comprehensiveness, and application. Furthermore, this study examined the effect of Earthcomm learning on student's spatial thinking ability. This study research employs a quantitative study, utilizing a quasi-experimental design with a non-equivalent control group. The study is conducted among school students in Padang City, West Sumatera Province, Indonesia. The research population consisted of 287 students, divided into eight research groups. Data on students' spatial thinking ability were collected through the Sharpe-Huynh model of spatial thinking ability test. Before further analysis, the data were assessed for normality and homogeneity. The experimental group utilized earth science in the community (Earthcomm) learning model, while the control group employed conventional learning. The research data were analyzed using Mann-Whitney U test. The findings revealed that the spatial thinking ability of high school students ranged from low to moderate. The Earthcomm learning model demonstrated a significant impact in improving spatial thinking skills. The impact of Earthcomm learning on enhancing spatial thinking abilities among high school students is elaborated in the following article. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most primary school students, although they grasp the scientific concepts of heat convection at the macroscopic level, commonly fail to visualize those concepts. Therefore, our research aims to enact a constructivist teaching sequence (CTS) to restructure students' visualization changes, ultimately enabling them to synergize macroscopic and sub-microscopic levels of understanding and visual representation. This study has employed a case study, combining qualitative and quantitative data to obtain an in-depth explanation. The quantitative data represent the percentage of the students' visual representation category and their understanding of pattern changes before and after the intervention. Meanwhile, the ways students presented their thoughts about a concept based on their visual representation are presented via qualitative data. All data come from the participants, comprising 69 fifth-grade elementary school students at one public school in Indonesia. Our research findings show that students' understanding of heat convection at both macroscopic and sub-microscopic levels improved to scientific conception, after undertaking the learning process using CTS. In addition, the use of CTS fostered a level of visual representation change regarding "construction" that dominated compared with other approaches: students shifted their visual representations from the varying styles of undefined drawing (UD), non-microscopic drawing (NMD), or no drawing (ND), to partial drawing (PD) and scientific drawing (SD). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines how the spatial configuration changes as a form of residential adaptation in the urban settlements of Yogyakarta City Center because of the dynamics of social, economic, and policy changes, through a case study of Kelurahan Sosromenduran, Yogyakarta from 1980 to 2020. This study departs from the existing dynamics of social, economic, and policy changes in line with the development of people's lives, especially in urban settlements. The research objectives are to examine changes in the typology of spatial configuration as a form of housing adaptation in the urban settlements of Yogyakarta City Center. The findings of this study are expected to enrich concepts/theories related to housing adaptation in urban center settlements, which can be a reference in developing urban settlements. This research used a qualitative approach based on a single case-embedded case study in a single location. This study concludes that there are two typologies of the configuration of residential space from 1980 to 2000, and it turned into six typologies of residential spatial configurations from 2000 to 2020. Functional value is implemented in the typology changes of spatial configuration as a form of residential adaptation from 1980-2000 to 2000-2020. This study highlights that the adaptation of housing in the central settlement of Yogyakarta City demonstrates changes of residential spatial configuration with the concept of spatial consolidation, including the concept of expansiveness and versatility of residential space. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Spatial perception is an essential skill for professional dentists. The objective of this study was to observe the spatial ability, as well as anatomy module grades, of dental students at a dental education center in Indonesia and relate these to gender and cohort. Methods: A cross-sectional study was carried out where dental students in years (cohorts) 1, 2, 4–6 were invited to take the Revised Purdue Spatial Visualization Test (PSVT-R) and the redrawn Vandenberg and Kuse Mental Rotation Test (MRT) in order to assess spatial ability. In addition, the 1st- and 2nd-year dental students carried out gross anatomy assessments. Spatial ability test results were compared using an independent t-test to detect gender differences, one-way analysis of variance to inspect cohort differences, and correlation relative to anatomy module scores. Results: A total of 326 dental students voluntarily participated. Statistically significant gender differences were found in both spatial ability tests in the overall sample (PSVT-R: p<0.001; MRT: p=0.001). When the 1st- and 2nd-year dental students were pooled, significant gender differences were detected, in which males scored higher than females in both spatial ability tests (PSVT-R: p<0.001; MRT: p=0.003). In anatomy, however, females scored higher than the males (p=0.005). In addition, there were weak to moderate, but significant correlations between spatial ability tests and anatomy scores. Conclusion: This study indicated that spatial ability may not be the only factor predicting the academic performance of dental students. However, dental students with low spatial ability scores may need supplementary educational techniques when learning specific spatial tasks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

PBHL is a learning model that combines PBL with hybrid learning. This study aims to 1) determine the effect of the PBHL model on spatial thinking ability and 2) determine the effect of the PBHL model on geography learning outcomes. This study uses a quasi-experimental design of the pretestposttest control group. The research subjects were students of the Social Sciences Education Program, Universitas Islam Negeri Maulana Malik Ibrahim Malang, Indonesia. The selection of research subjects uses purposive sampling and obtained the experimental class (32 students) and the control class (28 students). This study uses the instrument of spatial thinking ability adopted from Huynh and Sharpe in the form of multiple-choice tests and the instrument of learning outcomes assessment in the form of essay tests. Data were analyzed with an independent sample t-test which was previously tested for normality and homogeneity prerequisites. The results of the study concluded that 1) the PBHL model had a significant effect on spatial thinking ability and 2) the PBHL model had a significant effect on geography learning outcomes. The average gain score of spatial thinking ability and geography learning outcomes in the experimental class is higher than the control class. Suggestions for further research with different subjects and variables, integrated e-learning application should be used to make the planning and implementation of PBHL learning easier and more successful. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]