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Cacao plays an important role in the Indonesia economy. Therefore, its production and area expansion have to increase to achieve maximum cacao productivity by the quality and superior cacao clones. Shoot tip grafting is one of the propagation methods to obtain superior cacao plants by applying Plant Growth Regulators (PGRs). Research on the effect of several PGRs with various concentrations on cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) shoot tip grafting was conducted at the Integrated Innovation Farmer Group, Belubus, Sungai Talang Village, Guguak District, Lima Puluh Kota Regency, West Sumatra from February until June 2022. This study aimed to determine the interaction between PGR type and concentration on the grafting success and growth of cacao shoot tip grafted seedling. The research was designed by a Factorial Completely Randomized Design with three replications. The first factor was the type of PGR, i.e., synthetic PGR (BAP), young corn seed extract, shallot extract, and young coconut water. The second factor was the concentration of PGR, i.e., 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%. The results showed an interaction between PGRs with some concentrations on the number of shoots, shoot length, and leaf length on the grafted cacao seedling. The natural PGR from young coconut water at a concentration of 75% gave the best effect on the number of shoots (3.33 shoots) and shoot length (24.50 cm) of cacao seedling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indonesia is the third largest cocoa producer in the world with annual export value of more than 1.2 million USD. However, cacao production in Indonesia has decreased by approximately 50% in the last decade due to socioeconomic issues and the high prevalence of pests and diseases. Cacao mosaic disease caused by cacao mild mosaic virus (Badnavirus teselotheobromae, CMMV) is currently emerging in Indonesia. This study aims to map the distribution of CMMV in cacao‐growing areas in Indonesia. Samples were collected in 2021–2023 in Java, Sumatera, Bali, and Sulawesi, which represent major cacao‐growing areas in Indonesia. We successfully detected CMMV from all samples, indicating CMMV is already distributed widely in Indonesia. Sequencing data suggests the Indonesian isolates have a common ancestor with American isolates. These findings provide new information for the quarantine board, government, and industry to arrange the policy to control the emerging CMMV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is necessary to redevelop cacao commodity due to the decrease of cacao planting areas in Indonesia since the last decade. One of the ways is by providing a growing medium to produce cacao seedlings with good quality, such as by adding ameliorant i.e., oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) biochar to marginal soil of Ultisols. This research aimed to study and obtain the best OPEFB biochar dose to improve the chemical properties of Ultisols and the growth of cacao seedlings. This research was conducted in the Experimental Field of the 3rd Campus Andalas University from August 2021 until February 2022 using a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with 5 treatments of OPEFB biochar (0, 60, 90, 120, 150 tons/ha) and 4 replications, each experimental unit consisted of two plants, so that 40 plants were prepared in total. Data obtained were analyzed using F Distribution Test at 5% and further analyzed using Duncan's New Multiple Range Test (DNMRT) for statistically significant results. The results showed that the application of OPEFB biochar at 120 tons/ha was the best dose to give significant results on the chemical properties of Ultisols (pH, organic carbon, total nitrogen, available phosphorus, exchangeable potassium) and several growth variables of cacao seedlings (stem diameter, leaf length, leaf width, shoot dry weight, and shoot-root ratio). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This essay draws on insights from ethnographic and historical research in Indonesia to challenge a stubborn dualism that presents farmers as subsistence-oriented and risk-averse, in contrast to plantation corporations which are assumed to maximize productivity and profit. Drawing on this dualism, and setting aside centuries of enthusiastic farmer engagaement in growing global market crops, oil palm plantation corporations and their government supporters maintain that farmers are not interested in growing oil palm, or cannot do so efficiently, while corporations can be trusted to get the job done. The essay troubles this dualism on theoretical, empirical, and political grounds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As one of the largest exporters in the world, cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) production in Indonesia provides an important contribution to the plantation sector that can, directly and indirectly, attribute to the national economic development. However, recent data shows a decline in cocoa productivity in Indonesia. This is arguably caused by various factors, including poor agricultural management and practices in cocoa plantations, that may lead to lower fertility in the soil and an increased risk of diseases and pests. Potassium deficiency is a major contributing factor to the low soil fertility that affects cocoa yields. Therefore, in this work, we implement an application with an expert system utilizing the forward chaining method to detect potassium deficiency in cocoa plants and then give a fertilization-based recommendation based on the plants' condition. The system employs a set of rules to identify symptoms related to the deficiency on the sample photo of a cocoa leaf according to the channels of red, green, and blue of the image. The sample images of cocoa leaves are submitted to the application with an easy-to-use interface that can show the scanning result and proceed to display the suggested quantity of fertilizers to prevent potassium deficiency. Implementing the system can contribute constructive impacts to improve current practices in the overall cropping system of cocoa plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nitrogen (N) is one of the most required nutrients in cocoa production. Unlike in many other crops, there is limited knowledge on genotypic variation in nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) in clonal cocoa. We therefore evaluated the effect of nitrogen application on cocoa NUE in 10 clonal cocoa scions that were top-grafted on 4-month old rootstock seedlings of cocoa clone MCC 02. Grafted seedlings received either 0 or 2.3 g/plant of N at the beginning of the experiment, which lasted for five months and was arranged in a nursery of the Indonesian Coffee and Cocoa Research Institute (ICCRI) in Jember, Indonesia. A factorial randomized block design was used with four replications. We found that clones significantly affected rootstock stem diameter and dry biomass both in roots and shoots. Nitrogen application decreased rootstock stem diameter and root biomass but increased shoot-root ratio. Following the N application, we observed significantly higher N concentration and uptake both in roots and shoots. This higher N concentration and uptake contributed to significantly lower NUE in both roots and shoots. We did not observe clonal differences in N concentration, uptake, NUE in either roots or shoots and ANR (Apparent Nitrogen Recovery). Nitrogen application influenced P, K, Mg, and Ca uptake in both roots and shoots. There was a clonal effect on P, K and Mg uptake and on P and Mg use efficiency in both roots and shoots. This implies that the studied clones vary in their P and Mg nutrient use efficiency but not in NUE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Displacement due to environmental hazards such as sea-level rise and extreme weather has long been a prominent theme of climate adaptation and migration research. Although the relationship between climate adaptation and displacement is typically associated with the involuntary relocation of human bodies and livelihoods, in this article I offer an alternative perspective. Through an examination of recent trends in the Indonesian cocoa sector, I argue that fixing labor and capital in place—often in the form of smallholder producers—has emerged as a core strategy for corporate entities to manage the threat of their own economic displacement. Although this strategy enables corporate entities to maintain cocoa production in the face of economic and environmental disruption, the associated loss of smallholder mobility, constrained livelihood options, and new forms of financial dependency increase smallholder vulnerability to economic and environmental impacts associated with climate change. This work highlights emerging tensions between climate adaptation, displacement, and agrarian change while raising new questions concerning who and what is displaced and how in the context of climate adaptation in the Global South. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Backgrounds and aims: Litter protects the underlying soil, depending on litterfall and decomposition, but dynamics of the standing litter stock in agroforestry systems remain poorly understood. We aimed to unravel effects of litter quality, temporal patterns, microclimate, and a possible home-field advantage (HFA) on standing litter dynamics across a land-use gradient. Methods: We quantified litterfall, the standing litter stock, and microclimate during a year in (remnant) forest, cacao-based simple and complex agroforestry, cacao monocultures, and annual crops in a cacao producing area in Indonesia. We conducted a reciprocal litter transfer experiment, and tested decomposition rates of pruning residues. Standing litter stocks during the year were estimated from monthly litterfall and decomposition rates. Results: Variation in litter quality influenced decomposition rates more strongly than variation in microclimate or HFA. Lower litter quality in complex agroforestry and in the cacao monoculture decreased the decay rate compared to simple agroforestry systems; mean litter residence time was over a year. Mixing high- and low-quality material in pruning residues modified the decomposition rate, soil C and N changes, offering options for targeted management of soil protection and nutrient release. Conclusions: The seasonal patterns of litterfall and relatively slow decomposition rates supported permanence of the litter layer in all cacao production systems, protecting the underlying soil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Protective roles of shade trees for climate-resilient cacao appear to depend on tree-site matching. Agroforestry practices involve a wide range of context-specific management options, which can be complex and pose challenges due to tradeoffs. To assess the benefits and drawbacks, across a range of contexts, of various cacao-based land use systems on multifunctionality and economic performance. We used the process-based Water, Nutrient and Light Capture in agroforestry systems (WaNuLCAS) model to assess the performance of five cacao-based land use systems (cacao monoculture, cacao + annual crops, cacao + fruit tree, cacao + fast-growing tree, and cacao + slow-growing tree), in three climate regimes (tropical rainforest, monsoon, and savannah), two soil textures, and two sources of data for cacao root length density (W Africa and Indonesia, respectively). Several metrics quantified the performance of each land use system, including the Land Equivalent Ratio for production (LER P),multifunctionality (LER M), Net Present Value (NPV), Return to Labour (RtL), and Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR). Simulated cacao production per tree, positively or negatively influenced by intercrops, responded to the number of days cacao grew under water-limited conditions. High cacao root density supported higher LER P values (an average of 1.15 versus 0.95 in other cases). In the savanna, the LER P difference between cacao with high root density and those with low root density became 0.27. Among agroforestry systems, cacao + annual crops had the highest LER P of 1.13, followed by cacao + slow-growing trees (1.09), while the lowest outcome (0.98) was for cacao + fruit trees. These values were higher in rainforest climates, and lowest for savanna. Soil texture had no effect on the average LER P across other main factors. Tree-based agroforestry had a higher time-averaged carbon stock than monocultures or systems with annual crops. However, their effects on other environmental performance aspects, averaged over a 20-year life cycle, were modest, and variation in LER M was small. Economic performance indicators diverged, with the highest NPV were for cacao + annual crops or cacao + fruit trees, the highest BCR was for cacao + fruit trees, and the highest RtL was for cacao + fruit trees followed by cacao + slow-growing trees. Our study highlights that the potential benefits of cacao-based agroforestry practices depend on strong root development by the cacao trees. In selecting for high yields in monocultures, the benefits of intercropping may be forfeited, especially in drier climates with the lower values for root length density measured in W Africa. [Display omitted] • Cacao can have annual food crops, fruit trees, slow- or fast-growing timber trees as companion plants. • Cacao agroforestry options depend on rainfall, soils and cacao root development. • A calibrated WaNuLCAS model estimated multifunctionality and economic performance. • Integrating cacao with fruit trees achieves best economic performances. • Selection for high-yielding cacao with low belowground C investment, forfeits intercropping options. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phytophthora palmivora has a broad range of host plants. The expression of its pathogenicity-related genes in causing black pod rot disease on cacao in Indonesia has not been studied yet. This research was conducted to recognize relative expression of those genes using qPCR analysis. In planta experiment was carried out by inoculating representative three isolates on model plant (Nicotiana benthamiana) at the incubation periods of 24, 48, 72, and 96 h. The expressed genes were reconfirmed using conventional PCR and quantitatively analyzed using qPCR technique. The results showed that among eight target genes, four genes were actively expressed on the inoculated N. benthamiana, including CRN1, Pec1, Pec3, and RXLR5. Furthermore, qPCR analysis revealed that those genes were upregulated on the inoculated plants during incubation periods. In WNO1 and WAT1 isolates, the optimum expression was documented on the first day of incubation time, and then it was decreasing on the following days. However, the delay expression was exhibited by the pathogenicity-related genes in isolate BTG1. We assumed it as the general pathway of pathogenicity mechanisms in P. palmivora, since prior screening pathogenicity assay categorized that isolate BTG1 into moderate pathogenic, isolate WAT1 into high pathogenic, and isolate WNO1 into less pathogenic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) is a small evergreen tree that belongs to the family Malvaceae and is native to the deep tropical regions of Mesoamerica. Cacao black pod (pod rot) is one of the main diseases of cacao that causes 44% global crop loss. It is caused by the fungus Phytophthora palmivora. Cacao host resistance to black pod disease is the only way to combat this disease. Single nucleotide amplified polymorphism (SNAP) markers are reliable tools because of their capability to identify cacao resistance levels at the early growth stages without inoculation. In this study, the catalase-1 (CAT1) gene was found to be linked to cacao black pod disease resistance. Its sequence was explored during 2019-2020 at the Molecular Laboratory, Indonesian Industrial and Beverage Crops Research Institute, Indonesia. The CAT1 gene sequence generated six SNP sites, which were used to design SNAP markers. The testing of the newly designed markers by using six cacao genotypes with different levels of resistance showed that the designed primers for the Cat1-71 marker can differentiate resistant and susceptible genotypes. This marker detected variations [C/T] in the SNP position 71 in the CAT1 gene on chromosome 8. The nonsynonymous SNP changed leucine into phenylalanine. The visualization of DNA bands through gel electrophoresis revealed that the Cat1-71 marker produced amplifications and has the potential to predict the resistance level of 16 F1 hybrid cocoa. The phenotypic test of hybrid cocoa resistance can be continued by using the leaf disc assay. In addition, the SNAP marker has the advantage of facile analysis via agarose gel electrophoresis. Hence, the use of SNAP markers will improve the accuracy of the identification of cacao resistance to black pod disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cocoa cultivar development through diallel crosses is one of the national efforts in increasing cocoa productivity in Indonesia. However, these crosses require compatibility evaluation to increase the effectiveness of the crossing. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the best compatibility level of common cocoa clones and to identify the compatibility selection characters based on the characteristics of the fruit produced from the crossings. This study was designed using a full diallel cross design of six Indonesian superior cocoa clones, namely MCC-01, Sulawesi-1, THR, MCC-02, AFQ/MHP-01, and BB-01. Apart from diallel crosses, each clone was also subjected to self-pollination and natural crosses, so that there were 42 types of crosses. Each type of cross was carried out by 50 crosses per plant which was repeated for three plants, resulting in 150 crossing experiments for each type of cross. Observations were made on the 12 characters of the fruit resulted from crosses. The results show that the BB-01 was the clone with the best compatibility, followed by the MCC-01 and Sulawesi-1 clones. Meanwhile, the best selection character in measuring the cross-compatibility characteristic is the seed wet weight per fruit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Xylosandrus compactus is one of the significant beetle pests on perennial crops, which has become an increasing problem on cacao productivity and sustainability in South Sulawesi, Indonesia. The beetle is also known as ambrosia beetle due to the obligate association with symbiotic fungi. The beetle and infested plant parts were collected from infested Theobroma cacao in the field, then the beetles identified morphologically and the associated fungi isolated. In this study, we found that the beetles attacked all stages of cocoa growing in the field such as seedling, young trees and mature trees with visible symptoms including the appearance of round bore holes with powdery frass on the tree trunk and branches. Also, we found the beetle being distributed in three main cocoa areas in South Sulawesi. According to the beetle´s characteristic, the female has the black colour of the body (head and elytra), size 1–2 mm and the shining slope. Six types of fungi were isolated from infected plant parts and the beetle X. compactus: Fusarium-like colony (two isolates), Lasiodiplodia-like colony, Ceratocyctis-like colony and Diaporthe-like colony (two isolates). Among the fungi isolated, several fungi were known as the pathogen. The beetle and its associated fungi are responsible for the typical dieback symptoms, decline and sudden death inflicted on a number of cacao trees. The occurrence of X. compactus on cacao tree is reported for the first time from Sulawesi, Indonesia. The beetle pest infestation will become a significant threat to the future of the cacao industry in Sulawesi, Indonesia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and aims: Trade-offs between ecological benefits and potential yield and growth reductions associated with the inclusion of shade trees in cocoa agroforests remain poorly understood. In this study we investigate interactions between shade and cocoa trees in cocoa agroforests in terms of soil fertility and cocoa productivity. Methods: We quantified the effects of individual shade trees from 11 commonly intercropped species on cocoa growth (aboveground biomass) and yield and soil fertility indicators (total soil carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus contents and soil aggregation) at field sites in Southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia. Results: Shade trees had a net positive effect on soil fertility in cocoa agroforests, with a 6% increase in soil carbon, a 4% in soil nitrogen and a 24% increase in mean weight diameter (used as an indicator for median soil aggregate size), under shade tree canopies compared to open areas. We found that shade trees had a net negative effect on cocoa tree growth and no net effect on cocoa yields. We were not able to link costs versus benefits with specific shade tree traits, but nevertheless observed significant differences between shade tree species. G. sepium (gliricidia) had significantly positive effects on yields, soil carbon and aggregation. N. lappaceum (rambutan) and D. zibethinus (durian) had significantly positive effects on soil carbon and nitrogen contents and on aggregation, but not on yields. Conclusions: Our findings confirm the potential for soil improvements under shade trees and suggest that the inclusion of individual shade trees does not always constitute a direct trade-off for farmers in terms of yield losses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cacao (Theobrama cacao) is one of the main plantation commodities in Indonesia which has an important role for the national economy. The low productivity of cacao plants in Indonesia is due to the condition of old plants, pests and diseases attacks which affect the quality of the fruit and decrease the plant's productivity. The objective of this study was to isolate and identify of endophytic bacteria from stem, flower, leaf and fruit of T. cacao by using 16S rRNA gene as genetic marker. Twenty seven endophytic bacterial isolates were collected from local plantation in Yogyakarta area. From this study, 8 endophytic bacterial strains exhibited the higher PGP traits. The isolates produced Indole Acetic Acid level by 0.3 to 5.21 ppm/hour. All of isolates had nitrogen fixation activity but have not phosphate solubilization activity. Among them, isolates CSDT 4 and CGKBH 4 showed promising potential as PGP bacteria. Based on the 16S rRNA gene sequences, those bacterial strains were identified as Brevibacillus brevis (CSDT 4) and Pantoea sp. (CGKBH 4). We propose that the B. brevis and Pantoea sp. which is reported for the first time for their PGP potential in cacao, exerts its beneficial effects on cacao crop through combined of activities. The potential PGP bacteria from the Cacao plant was used to make a specific biofertilizer formula for the Cacao plant, because of the different needs and condition that every plant requires. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cacao plantations in Sulawesi Island, Indonesia are responsible for a great part of the local economy; however, their soils still need to be deeply explored. Our study focused on evaluation of the microbial communities in cacao soils according to their location and applied management system. Four soil samples were taken from six cacao farms under two kinds of systems (conventional and organic). 16S and ITS rDNA amplicon sequencing analyses of soils were also performed to identify bacteria and fungi, respectively, whereby their relative abundance and diversity were determined. In general view, the bacterial and fungal communities were affected by management system at the local and general levels. Bacterial analyses indicated that the number of operational taxonomic units and bacterial diversity were higher under the organic system in Kulawi, Palolo, and Poso farms. The composition and biodiversity of fungi were clearly different between organic and conventional systems and between different places (coastal and inland). The effect of agricultural management was observed in each location individually and in general. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mirid bugs (Hemiptera: Miridae) are important pests of Eucalyptus (Myrtaceae) trees in Indonesia. Young Eucalyptus plantations are mainly affected by Helopeltis spp. Damage by Helopeltis resulted in die-back of young shoots, curling, deformation and drying usually, irrespective of the clones. In North Sumatra, damage in Eucalyptus is associated to Helopeltis bradyi Waterhouse despite the presence of H. theivora Waterhouse in the region. Important alternate host plants recorded as reservoirs of H. bradyi in vicinity to Eucalyptus plantations were Persea sp. (Lauraceae), Coffea sp. (Rubiaceae), Psidium guajava (Myrtaceae), Ludwigia sp. (Onagraceae), Clidemia hirta (Melastomataceae) and Theobroma cacao (Malvaceae). Leiophron sp. (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) was reported as an important parasitoid with parasitism of 41.86% on the H. bradyi nymphs and 17.07% on adults. Helopeltis theivora was recorded as the only species affecting Eucalyptus plantations in Riau Province, so far no other Helopeltis sp. has been identified in Riau. Ragwelellus festivus Miller and Ragwelellus sp. were reported for the first time damaging Eucalyptus trees in North Sumatra, Riau Province and East Kalimantan regions of Indonesia. Arthriticus eugeniae Bergroth was also reported for the first time damaging matured Eucalyptus trees along with Ragwelellus in North Sumatra and Riau Provinces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vascular streak dieback (VSD) disease, caused by Ceratobasidium theobromae, is a significant cocoa diseases in Indonesia. Planting materials are often produced by top grafting raising the possibility that VSD may be spread through the use of infected grafting materials. When scions from VSD-infected stems were used in grafting, both the rootstock and new growth from the scion developed symptoms of VSD. Infected scions often failed to establish when used for top grafting. This finding proves that the use of infected scions when top grafting can result in infected planting material with potential for spreading VSD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Unstable new-encounter relationships between plants and pathogens form when organisms are transported between once-isolated biogeographic regions. Ceratobasidium theobromae is a new-encounter pathogen that has plagued the cocoa industry causing vascular streak dieback in Southeast Asia and western Melanesia. The disease underwent a sudden change in symptoms associated with an increase in disease incidence in Indonesia and Malaysia from about 2004. These changes have not been linked to changes in the pathogen or host and this shift could signal an effect of region-wide environmental changes in the responses of cocoa trees to infection. To study the effect of ambient temperature on symptom expression, this study assessed disease symptoms in cocoa trees along altitudinal gradients in Sulawesi, Indonesia. It recorded types of VSD symptoms (necrotic or chlorotic) in clones and local hybrids on managed farms, and in a reciprocal transplant experiment. The results found that consistently across landscapes, in trees of varying inherent susceptibilities to VSD, the incidence of new, necrotic symptoms decreased with altitude and was restricted to lowlands, while the chlorotic symptoms that originally characterised the disease were found throughout the altitudinal range. The new symptom pattern in cocoa appears to be an environmentally driven change in tree responses to the pathogen, possibly related to recent climate warming or elevated atmospheric concentration of CO 2 due to widespread burning of forest and peat beds in Indonesia. The increased occurrence of a necrotic response of leaves to invasion by C. theobromae is typical of a hypersensitive response often associated with resistance to invasion by pathogens and could indicate enhanced resistance, although prolonged attachment of diseased leaves allows increased sporulation of the fungus and increased disease incidence. These are the first results to show an altered plant host–fungus pathogen response likely due to climate change, indicating that global warming may cause subtle but ecologically important changes in plant-parasite interactions. New-encounter relationships that are less stable than long-term co-evolved relationships might provide early-warning of ecological changes due to climate change. Determining whether the changed symptoms are a new threat is vital knowledge for farmers' livelihoods in this region. • First results to show an altered symptom response to a pathogen due to environmental factors. • Incidence of new symptoms of VSD decreased with altitude and was restricted to lowlands; original symptoms were found at all altitudes. • This new pattern represents an environmentally driven change in tree responses to the pathogen. • The change may be related to increased temperature or elevated CO 2 caused by burning of forest and peat beds. • Changes may indicate enhanced plant resistance, rather than prima facie worsening of symptoms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Keywords: Badnavirus; Theobroma cacao EN Badnavirus Theobroma cacao 1 2 2 06/29/22 20220401 NES 220401 Cocoa is one of the most important exports from Indonesia with an annual value of up to US$1.3 billion. Cacao mosaic disease is caused by badnaviruses and represents a risk for the cultivation of cacao ( I Theobroma cacao i ) (Marelli et al., 2019). [Extracted from the article]

We asked how shade tree admixture affects cacao water use in agroforests. In Central Sulawesi, Indonesia, cacao and shade tree sap flux was monitored in a monoculture, in a stand with admixed Gliricidia trees and in a mixture with a multi-species tree assemblage, with both mixtures having similar canopy openness. A Jarvis type sap flux model suggested a distinct difference in sap flux response to changes in vapor pressure deficit and radiation among cacao trees in the individual cultivation systems. We argue that differences originate from stomatal control of transpiration in the monoculture and altered radiation conditions and a different degree of uncoupling of the VPD from the bulk atmosphere inside shaded stands. Probably due to high sap flux variability among trees, these differences however did not result in significantly altered average daily cacao water use rates which were 16 L day in the multi-species assemblage and 22 L day in the other plots. In shaded stands, water use of single cacao trees increased with decreasing canopy gap fraction in the overstory since shading enhanced vegetative growth of cacao fostering transpiration per unit ground area. Estimated transpiration rates of the cacao tree layer were further controlled by stem density and amounted to 1.2 mm day in the monoculture, 2.2 mm day for cacao in the cacao/ Gliricidia stand, and 1.1 mm day in the cacao/multi-species stand. The additional transpiration by the shade trees is estimated at 0.5 mm day for the Gliricidia and 1 mm day for the mixed-species cultivation system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Twenty-two cocoa bean samples were collected from different geographic origins of Indonesia. The composition of methylxanthines, polyphenols, key odorant volatiles, and minerals in the samples were quantified to better understand the quality variation of the beans. The results revealed great diversity in chemical composition of these beans. Unfermented cocoa beans were rich in methylxanthines and polyphenols but had low amounts of key odorant volatiles. Fermented samples shared similar characteristics (less bioactive compounds and abundant key odorant volatiles) regardless of their geographic origins. The origins of the samples could not be determined using the results of bioactive compounds and key odorant volatiles probably due to the influence of post-harvest processing. Separation of samples based on their fermentation degree (under-fermented and fermented samples) during principal component analysis (PCA) improved the accuracy of the determination of geographic origins. The origin of cocoa beans could be delineated by PCA using mineral composition data of the fermented samples. • Chemical profiles of 22 cocoa bean samples are diverse. • Fermentation degree affected chemical composition in beans more than origins. • Beans with similar fermentation degrees had similar bioactive composition. • Principal component analysis using minerals data delineated the origin of the beans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shade trees play an important role within agroforestry systems by influencing radiation and wind regimes as well as nutrient and hydrological cycling. However, there is a lack of quantitative assessments of their functions. One of the reasons is the rare information on structural characteristics of shade tree species. Therefore, the aim of this study is to provide basic information on the structure of frequently used shade tree species for the implementation of models simulating the ecosystem processes in agroforestry systems. The investigation of the shade trees was conducted at two cacao agroforestry sites on Sulawesi, Indonesia. The measurements of the main structural parameters: diameter at breast height, tree height, trunk height, crown length and crown radius were carried out for the shade tree species Aleurites moluccana, Cocos nucifera and Gliricidia sepium. For data collection, the National Forest Inventory Field Manual Template by FAO () was applied. Based on this information allometric functions were derived for the correspondent shade tree species. The best significant relationships were obtained for the height-crown length relationship of the dicotyledonous tree species' A. moluccana and G. sepium with a coefficient of determination r² = 0.925 and r² = 0.738, respectively, and the height-crown length relationship of the monocotyledonous palm C. nucifera with r² = 0.663. The transferability tests 'analysis of covariance' and 'homogeneity of slopes' have shown that the obtained allometric functions are also applicable to other cacao agroforestry systems of the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Terrestrial herbs are important ecological components in tropical agroforests, but little is known about how they are affected by agricultural management. In cacao agroforests of Central Sulawesi, Indonesia, we studied the change in herb species richness, cover, and biomass over 3 years in 86 subplots subjected to high and low weeding frequency as well as fertilized and non-fertilized treatments. We recorded 111 species with rapid changes in species composition between the 3 years. Species richness increased sharply in the 2nd year, presumably as a result of changes in the management with the experimental regimes, and decreased in the 3rd, probably due to competitive exclusion. Species richness, cover, and biomass were all significantly higher in the infrequently weeded plots than in the frequently weeded ones, but there were only slight responses to the fertilization treatment. An indicator species analysis recovered 45 species that were typical for a given year and a further eight that were typical for certain treatments, but these species showed no clear patterns relative to their ecology or biogeography. We conclude that the herb assemblages in cacao agroforests are quite resilient against weeding, but that the cover of species shifts rapidly in response to management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Tropical secondary forest and agroforestry systems have been identified as important refuges for the local species diversity of birds and other animal groups, but little is known about the importance of these systems for terrestrial herbs. In particular, few studies report how the conversion from tropical forest to technified cacao plantation affects the species richness and the community structure of herbs. We conducted surveys in 43 cacao plantations along the border of the Lore Lindu National Park in Central Sulawesi, ranging from agroforests to technified cacao, categorizing the plantations as rustic cacao, planted shade cacao, and technified cacao. We recorded 91 herb species. Of the 74 species determined to species level, 21 were also found in natural forests, while 53 were recorded only in agricultural habitats. Araceae was the most forest-dependent plant family while Asteraceae included the highest number of nonforest species. Overall, the presence of forest species was confined to moderately intensively managed rustic and planted shaded plantations. Distance from the forest, which has been identified as a crucial parameter for the diversity and composition of other taxa in cacao agroforests, only played a minimal role for herbs. Our study suggests that native forest herbs maybe more vulnerable to forest conversion than animal groups. The intensification of cacao plantation management increases the presence of weedy species to the detriment of native forest species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Little is known about the effects of anthropogenic land-use change on the amphibians and reptiles of the biodiverse tropical forests of Southeast Asia. We studied a land-use modification gradient stretching from primary forest, secondary forest, natural-shade cacao agroforest, planted-shade cacao agroforest to open areas in central Sulawesi, Indonesia. We determined species richness, abundance, turnover, and community composition in all habitat types and related these to environmental correlates, such as canopy heterogeneity and thickness of leaf litter. Amphibian species richness decreased systematically along the land-use modification gradient, but reptile richness and abundance peaked in natural-shade cacao agroforests. Species richness and abundance patterns across the disturbance gradient were best explained by canopy cover and leaf-litter thickness in amphibians and by canopy heterogeneity and cover in reptiles. Amphibians were more severely affected by forest disturbance in Sulawesi than reptiles. Heterogeneous canopy cover and thick leaf litter should be maintained in cacao plantations to facilitate the conservation value for both groups. For long-term and sustainable use of plantations, pruned shade trees should be permanently kept to allow rejuvenation of cacao and, thus, to prevent repeated forest encroachment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In South-east Asia, ENSO-related droughts represent irregularly occurring hazards for agroforestry systems containing cocoa which are predicted to increase in severity with expected climate warming. To characterize the drought response of mature cocoa trees, we conducted the Sulawesi Throughfall Displacement Experiment in a shaded ( Gliricidia sepium) cocoa agroforestry system in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Three large sub-canopy roofs were installed to reduce throughfall by about 80% over a 13-month period to test the hypotheses that (i) cocoa trees are sensitive to drought due to their shallow fine root system, and (ii) bean yield is more sensitive to drought than leaf or stem growth. As 83% of fine root (diameter <2 mm) and 86% of coarse root biomass (>2 mm) was located in the upper 40 cm of the soil, the cocoa trees examined had a very shallow root system. Cocoa and Gliricidia differed in their vertical rooting patterns, thereby reducing competition for water. Despite being exposed for several months to soil water contents close to the conventional wilting point, cocoa trees showed no significant decreases in leaf biomass, stem and branch wood production or fine root biomass. Possible causes are active osmotic adjustment in roots, mitigation of drought stress by shading from Gliricidia or other factors. By contrast, production of cocoa beans was significantly reduced in the roof plots, supporting reports of substantial reductions in bean yields during ENSO-related drought events in the region. We conclude that cocoa possesses traits related to drought tolerance which enable it to maintain biomass production during extended dry periods, whereas bean yield appears to be particularly drought sensitive. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Emergent trees may have an influence on the volume and the spatial distribution of water input into agroforestry stands and may thus affect water availability for the main crops. Our goal was to analyze the influence of such trees on rainfall distribution in a cacao agroforest area in the rainforest margin zone of Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. The emergent trees studied belong to the species Bischofia javanica (Phyllanthaceae) and were 15m high remnants from the natural forest. A set of 96 throughfall gauges was systematically distributed underneath canopies of cacao only, and underneath canopies of cacao plus emergent trees (cacao plus trees). From an earlier study we knew that stemflow can safely be estimated with less than 1% of gross precipitation (Pg). Median throughfall tended to be lower in gauges underneath cacao plus trees than under cacao only (p⩽0.1), and the estimated rainfall interception loss was 4% and 16% of Pg in cacao only and cacao plus trees plots, respectively. This difference was most likely caused by a tree-induced enhancement of the canopy water storage capacity and an increase in canopy roughness. Underneath the canopy of emergent trees (cacao plus trees), throughfall exceeded gross precipitation east of the tree stems (113%) and was significantly lower (p⩽0.05) west and north of the tree stems (67–77% of Pg). Significant effects of trees on throughfall did not extend beyond their canopy area. We assume that wind-driven rain was stripped out east of the stems causing an increase in throughfall, while rain-shadow effects led to a decrease in throughfall west and north of the tree stems. Thus, at our study site emergent trees tended to reduce rain water input, and produced clear spatial patterns in throughfall distribution. A reduced water availability may lead to reduced cacao bean yields in times of water scarcity but a more complete assessment of the hydrological function of shade trees in agroforestry systems may also reveal positive influences of shade trees on cacao trees. Such an advanced analysis of hydrological functions still remains to be done. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Cacao cultivation holds a sweet promise, not only for chocolate consumers and cacao farmers but also for conservationists who argue that diverse cacao agroforests may be used to sustain both livelihoods of smallholders and ecological benefits such as the conservation of biodiversity within human-dominated tropical landscapes. However, regional boom-and-bust cycles are the rule in global cacao production: after initial forest conversion to cacao agroforests, sustaining production is difficult due to dwindling yields as trees age and pest and disease pressure increases. The failure to revitalize plantations often leads to a shift of cacao production to other regions. Shade removal dynamics within these cycles substantially reduce most of the biodiversity benefits. We investigate the conservation implications of these processes. Using examples from the current cacao crisis in Indonesia, we show that until now commitments to sustainability by the cacao-chocolate sector have not been successful, which endangers remaining forests. Conservation can be combined with smallholder cacao production, but if this is to be achieved, greater quantitative and qualitative efforts to halt cacao cycles are needed on the part of the industry by making use of existing opportunities to combine sustainability, carbon storage, and biodiversity conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

1. Although agricultural expansion is a primary threat to tropical biodiversity, experimental studies evaluating the conservation value of tropical agricultural habitats are scarce. In particular, little is known about the sensitivity of amphibians and reptiles to habitat disturbance in areas of very high diversity such as South-East Asia. 2. We used a two-step approach to determine the relationship between habitat complexity and conservation value of cacao agroforestry for herpetological diversity in Sulawesi (Indonesia). Indonesia is the third largest cacao-exporting country globally and forest conversion to cacao plantations is a major threat to its biodiversity. We first sampled 43 cacao plantations six times to determine the environmental variables that best explained herpetofaunal diversity patterns using a Bayesian model selection approach. Based on these results, we experimentally manipulated leaf litter thickness (LLT), number of branch piles (LOGS) and LLT + LOGS combinations in the cacao plots. The experimental data were analysed using Bayesian hierarchical regression. 3. The best supported correlative models incorporated LLT, LOGS, air temperature and the ratio between leaf litter and shrub cover, showing the importance of habitat heterogeneity and suggesting climate change sensitivity. The subsequent structural manipulation of these attributes changed amphibian and reptile species richness, and reptile abundance, but only addition of leaf litter did so in a biologically meaningful way, providing microhabitat resources. However, the main beneficiaries were common disturbance-tolerant reptiles. 4. Synthesis and applications. The different results from the correlative model and the independent manipulative experiments showed how important such a combined approach is to derive adequate conservation management recommendations. Increasing leaf litter in cacao agroforestry will work best if implemented on a landscape scale to incorporate sufficient environmental variation and species life histories. This will mainly enhance the richness and abundance of disturbance-tolerant species, which still may maintain ecosystem functions such as pest removal. Particularly for rare species, native forests remain critical for herpetological richness. The direct temperature sensitivity suggests that future climate change impacts may be severe for herpetological diversity in plantation habitats and, hence, demand further research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Management intensification in cultivated, tropical forests drives changes in the microclimate that can threaten native forest flora and fauna. In this study, we use epiphytic bryophytes, known to be sensitive to microclimatic changes due to their lack of a protective cuticle and the exposed habitat, to investigate the predictive power of microclimate for changes in species richness and composition. Bryophytes were sampled from understory trees in natural forest and cacao (Theobroma cacaoL.) trees in two types of cacao agroforests (natural shade trees and planted shade trees) in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. The microclimate in the agroforests was characterised by low air humidity and high air temperature during the afternoon. Bryophyte species richness did not differ between habitat types but species composition changed markedly from the natural forest to the cacao agroforests. Although no correlation between species richness and microclimate values could be found, a series of matrix-based analyses revealed a significantly positive relationship between similarities in species composition and in maximum values for temperature and minimum values for humidity, which suggests that microclimatic changes are a good predictor for high turnover of bryophyte community composition from natural forests to cacao agroforests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The impact of epiphytes on cacao productivity was investigated in agroforests in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Effects of epiphyte removal on fruit-set success and eventual yields were studied on 80 trees in an experiment with a balanced full factorial design. The removal treatment had no significant effect on the eventual harvest of the cacao trees. Pollinator availability had the greatest impact on fruit-set success, whereas yields were mainly determined by site-specific factors that mediate fruit-abortion and occurrence of fungal diseases. The results illustrate that epiphytic flora dominated by non-vascular species may have no effects on cacao tree functioning and removal of non-vascular epiphytes is unnecessary for improving the productivity of cacao. Hence, farmers’ labour can be reduced and conservation of the rich biodiversity outside natural forests supported. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The ongoing destruction of tropical rainforests has increased the interest in the potential value of tropical agroforests for the conservation of biodiversity. Traditional, shaded agroforests may support high levels of biodiversity, for some groups even approaching that of undisturbed tropical forests. However, it is unclear to what extent forest fauna is represented in this diversity and how management affects forest fauna in agroforests. We studied lower canopy ant and beetle fauna in cacao agroforests and forests in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia, a region dominated by cacao agroforestry. We compared ant and beetle species richness and composition in forests and cacao agroforests and studied the impact of two aspects of management intensification (the decrease in shade tree diversity and in shade canopy cover) on ant and beetle diversity. The agroforests had three types of shade that represented a decrease in tree diversity (high, intermediate and low diversity). Species richness of ants and beetles in the canopies of the cacao trees was similar to that found in lower canopy forest trees. However, the composition of ant and beetle communities differed greatly between the agroforest and forest sites. Forest beetles suffered profoundly from the conversion to agroforests: only 12.5% of the beetle species recorded in the forest sites were also found in the agroforests and those species made up only 5% of all beetles collected from cacao. In contrast, forest ants were well represented in agroforests, with 75% of all species encountered in the forest sites also occurring on cacao. The reduction of shade tree diversity had no negative effect on ants and beetles on cacao trees. Beetle abundances and non-forest ant species richness even increased with decreasing shade tree diversity. Thinning of the shade canopy was related to a decrease in richness of forest ant species on cacao trees but not of beetles. The contrasting responses of ants and beetles to shade tree management emphasize that conservation plans that focus on one taxonomic group may not work for others. Overall ant and beetle diversity can remain high in shaded agroforests but the conservation of forest ants and beetles in particular depends primarily on the protection of natural forests, which for forest ants can be complemented by the conservation of adjacent shaded cacao agroforests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The mortality of cacao fruits caused by early fruit abortion or insect and pathogen attacks was investigated in differently managed agroforestry systems in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Nine agroforestry systems shaded by three different types of tree stands were selected, which represented a decrease in structural heterogeneity: forest remnants, diverse planted trees and one or two species of planted leguminose trees. After standardized manual cross-pollination, the development of 600 fruits on 54 trees (6 trees per agroforest) was followed during 18 weeks of fruit development. In total, 432 of all fruits were lost before maturity, which seriously undermined yields. The proportion of harvested fruits per tree (overall average: 27±4%) was not affected by canopy type. Although shade cover did not have a significant effect, losses due to fruit abortion were most likely under forest shade, where nitrogen-fixing leguminose shade trees were absent. Fruit losses due to pathogenic infections and insect attacks increased with the homogenization of the agroforests, supporting the hypothesis that agricultural homogenization increases risks of pest outbreaks. In conclusion, shade management may be improved to increase yields from cacao using highly diversified natural shade agroforestry systems. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The reasons why upland farmers on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi are engaged in a cacao boom and its long term implications are addressed in the context of protected area management regulations, and political and economic conditions in Post-Suharto, Indonesia. In the remote case study village of Moa in Central Sulawesi, we found that while few households cultivated cacao in the early 1990s, all had planted cacao by 2000. Furthermore, the vast majority cultivate cacao in former food-crop focused swidden fields under full-sun conditions. Farmers cultivate cacao to establish property rights in light of a land shortage driven in part by the prohibition of farming and forest product collecting in a nearby national park, and to secure a future source of income, a concern that has been exacerbated by Indonesia's economic crisis. However, conversion of swidden fields to sun-grown cacao constrains future food production opportunities, increases susceptibility to drought stress and potential soil nutrient and organic matter losses, and increases household dependence on a commodity that is subject to extreme price volatility. These factors raise significant concerns for local food security and agricultural sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Investigates biophysical, soil and biodiversity effects associated with sun- vs. shade-grown coffee and cacao in a case study in Sulawesi, Indonesia. Finding that canopy height, tree, epiphyte, liana and bird species diversity, vegetation structural complexity, percent ground cover by leaf litter, and soil calcium, nitrate nitrogen and organic matter levels in the O horizons were all significantly greater in shaded than in sun-grown farms; Observation that photosynthetic active radiation (PAR), air and soil temperatures, weed diversity and percent ground cover by weeds were significantly greater in sun compared to shade farms; Finding that at the landscape level, conversion of shade-grown crops to sun conditions isolates protected areas and remnant primary forest fragments; Observation that local cultivators are cognizant of the agronomic and socioeconomic risks associated with sun-grown perennial monocultures and some are increasing the density and diversity of fruit tree cultivation in an effort to provide shade and organic matter, and increase and diversify crop yields; Recommendation that the maintenance of traditional, complex forest farming systems, particularly shade-grown perennial crops, warrants greater attention in agricultural development and biodiversity conservation efforts.

Evaluates the intercropping of rattan, coffee, and cacao in Sulawesi, Indonesia. Percentage of vegetative cuttings raised to transplanting size; Seedling survival; Leaf production.

Although carbon (C) stored deep in soils of tree-dominated land use systems in the tropics represents a large reservoir of organic matter its vulnerability to land use change has been hardly assessed. To fill this gap, we sampled Acrisols down to 3 m under three different land use systems; namely, recent cacao agroforestry (<2 years old; not deeper than 1 m), young and old rubber gardens (<10 years and >50 years), and secondary forest (>50 years) all located in Kapuas Hulu regency, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. We then assessed soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks as well as C accumulated in above- and belowground biomass, litter and dead wood debris at the soil surface. The amount of C stored in soils to a depth of 1 m exceeded the amount stored in living biomass (Σ C stored in roots, understorey and overstorey) strongly in the cacao agroforestry systems (69 Mg SOC vs. 12 Mg biomass-C ha−1), slightly in young rubber gardens (85 Mg SOC vs. 69 Mg C ha−1), but not in old rubber gardens (87 Mg SOC vs. 200 Mg C ha−1) and secondary forests (65 Mg SOC vs. 138 Mg C ha−1). Additionally in the older systems, up to 140 Mg C ha−1 (old rubber gardens) and 116 Mg C ha−1 (secondary forest) were found in soils to a depth of 3 m, thus raising soil C stocks by 60 to 80% relative to C stored in upper soil (0 to 1 m). We conclude that (1) the form of land use and land use change can substantially affect C stocks in living biomass, with aboveground biomass in old rubber gardens comparable to that of secondary forests; and (2) that land use change can reduce SOC in topsoil, but that substantial C stocks found in deep (down to 3 m) subsoil remain stable. • Old secondary forests stored up to 140 Mg C ha−1 in soils to a depth of 3 m • Carbon stored up to a depth of 1 m varied between 65 and 87 Mg C ha−1 • Above ground biomass varied strongly between forest types and age. • Living and dead biomass stored between 9 and 200 Mg C ha−1 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The recent trend to place monetary values on ecosystem services has led to studies on the economic importance of pollinators for agricultural crops. Several recent studies indicate regional, long-term pollinator declines, and economic consequences have been derived from declining pollination efficiencies. However, use of pollinator services as economic incentives for conservation must consider environmental factors such as drought, pests, and diseases, which can also limit yields. Moreover, "flower excess" is a well-known reproductive strategy of plants as insurance against unpredictable, external factors that limit reproduction. With three case studies on the importance of pollination levels for amounts of harvested fruits of three tropical crops (passion fruit in Brazil, coffee in Ecuador, and cacao in Indonesia) we illustrate how reproductive strategies and environmental stress can obscure initial benefits from improved pollination. By interpreting these results with findings from evolutionary sciences, agronomy, and studies on wild-plant populations, we argue that studies on economic benefits from pollinators should include the total of ecosystem processes that (1) lead to successful pollination and (2) mobilize nutrients and improve plant quality to the extent that crop yields indeed benefit from enhanced pollinator services. Conservation incentives that use quantifications of nature's services to human welfare will benefit from approaches at the ecosystem level that take into account the broad spectrum of biological processes that limit or deliver the service.