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This paper tries to investigate the question of whether the poverty ratio across Indian states is converging in the post-2000s. We addressed this question of spatial convergence of the poverty ratio using unconditional convergence over the period 2004–05 to 2018–19 for 18 major states of India, considering both rural and urban regions. We used the unit-level data of NSSO’s Consumer Expenditure Surveys (CES) for the 61st, 68th and PLFS 2018–19 rounds for the analysis. Besides, we try to assess the driving factors of poverty through a panel regression model. The results reveal that in the first period from 2004–05 to 2011–12, Indian states experienced a divergence in the overall poverty ratio and rural poverty. However, the second period, 2011–12 to 2018–19, witnessed no specific trend of convergence or divergence across states. Again, in the case of urban poverty, there is no particular pattern of poverty convergence or divergence during both periods. The study shows that the Gini coefficient, educational expenditure, household size, infant mortality, literacy rate, MPCE, primary-sector income and per capita power availability are the significant determinants of poverty in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poverty remains a major challenge for the countries of the global south. Decent employment opportunity, a crucial determinant of poverty reduction, is increasingly becoming elusive for those countries regardless of a decent rate of economic growth. There is a growing separation of economic growth and employment growth under the aegis of neo-liberal economic policies. Economic growth, instead of becoming inclusive, turns out to be “jobless” or “job loss.” Failing to reverse this trend, “Active Labour Market Policies” (ALMPs) in the form of “Public Works Programmes” (PWPs) have emerged as a major strategy to reduce unemployment and poverty. Secondly, rural–urban migration is very much relied upon for the same. Raising agricultural productivity, a crucial question of “agrarian transition,” well evident and verified across the globe, is, however, becoming oblivion in the fight against poverty. In this context, based on a primary survey of 300 households in the poorest regions of India, this paper endeavors to investigate the relative strength of MGNREGA (Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act), rural–urban migration, and land productivity on poverty. The study suggests that an agrarian-centric intervention is more effective in dealing with poverty as compared to MGNREGA (ALMPs) and migration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Female-based urban poverty has been a widely researched topic fitting into the pursuit of gender equality since the Beijing 1995 Conference for Women. However, the criteria for measuring female-based urban poverty assume a direct role in reducing various urban poverty manifestations amongst females. Nevertheless, standard domains such as economic and educational statuses show some noticeable characteristics in smaller townships located in the low-urbanised states of India. The city under concern — Sehore Municipal Council (M.C. hereafter) — furnishes an example of an emerging urban area in a low-urbanised state of Madhya Pradesh (27.6% of the urban population compared to the national average of 31.16%) where domain-wise spatial manifestations of female-based urban poverty are noticeable. In addition to the financial aspect of urban poverty, the study attempts to identify local area determinants related to the socio-economic and the cultural environment of Sehore M.C., using standard variables and indicators for the spatial manifestation of female-based urban poverty through a GIS-based multi-criteria decision-making technique of the analytical hierarchy process (AHP). Female-based urban poverty in Sehore M.C., lying within the urban sphere of influence of two metro cities of Bhopal and Indore, is analysed across six domains of economic, educational, social, health, lack of decision-making and time poverty, for 17 selected localities across four wards. Out of the six selected domains, the economic poverty domain turns out to be the strongest, while time poverty is the least dominant. The present model of female-based urban poverty may apply to similar newly urbanising areas falling within the ambit of metro cities in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reaching urban poor populations poses challenges for equitable immunization coverage. Furthermore, COVID disrupted routine immunization services. In Mumbai, India, first dose diphtheria tetanus pertussis containing vaccine (DTPCV1) coverage dropped from 88% (2019) to 76% (2021). We identified and characterized 125 zero-dose (those without DTPCV1) migrant children in urban Mumbai in October 2022. Almost half were born elsewhere than Mumbai; 53% resided at their present location for less than a year. More than half were 12–59 months of age, well-beyond the age for first routine childhood immunizations. Three of four zero dose children had received birth dose vaccination in the hospital; but failed to receive DTPCV1. Vaccine hesitancy, awareness gaps and operational issues were common reasons for non-vaccination. Despite frequent visits to health facilities for illness, only a third of facility staff asked or advised parents about vaccination. Missed opportunities were much more common in private than government facilities. For the vast majority (88%), residential sites were included in local routine immunization micro-plans and distances to immunization sites were short (less than 1 km for 94 % of families). However, planned session frequency was inadequate half of the time. Expanded efforts to reach migrant urban poor children are needed to ensure vaccine equity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poverty is a product of various deprivations. Gender discrimination is linked with deprivation in terms of socio-economic and political opportunities. This study explores the link between female-headship of a household and its vulnerability towards urban poverty. Further, the most vulnerable sub-sections among the urban female-headed households are identified. The study is based on the 68th round of Household Consumer Expenditure, and Employment and Unemployment Survey, India. Female-headed households were found to have higher odds to be urban poor as compared to their male counterparts. However, this gender-based difference in odds to be urban poor disappears once educational attainment of household-head is controlled for. This highlights that the discrimination in terms of educational attainment is major cause and solution to urban poverty among female-headed households. Further, female-headed households are not a homogeneous group and exhibit significant differences in their vulnerability to urban poverty across different socio-economic and demographic subgroups. The negative impact of COVID-19 pandemic on female education in India is expected to create a long-term gender gap in terms of poverty. Thus, the public policy should stress on skill and educational attainment of females and target the poverty alleviation programmes on vulnerable sub-section of the female-headed households. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Urban poor face a disproportionate burden of ill health and high out-of-pocket expenditure (OOPE), creating a severe unmet need for affordable and quality health care. This article highlights the impact of health insurance on OOPE and catastrophic healthcare expenditure among the urban poor of India. Methods: The study uses randomly collected household data from a baseline survey conducted in the states of Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. Separate Insurance impact models have been generated for the analysis. Results: Mean out-of-pocket health expenses is higher in the private health facility for the inpatient care but in case of outpatient care, the expenditure was more in public. Expenditure on medicine constitutes the largest part of the total OOPE. Insurance impact model shows that coverage on medicine alone can reduce medical impoverishment by 85% in the case of Outpatient Deparment (OPD) and 71% in the case of Inpatient Department (IPD). The urban poor preferred private facility for treatment in case of illness, albeit when it comes to delivery, they prefer public facility Conclusions: Study findings indicate overt reliance on private health care must be regulated, to reduce OOPE among the urban poor. Also, effective universal health insurance can go a long way in reducing the OOPE with availability of free medicines and diagnostics in the public health facilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The prevalence of poverty has bothered Indian economists, policymakers, and politicians alike. The rapid economic growth was unable to trickle down to the poorest which has led to the persistence of poverty both in urban and rural India even after 75 years of independence. Keeping this in view this paper has tried to examine the regional variations in the spatial pattern of incidence of urban poverty in India across 17 major states using data from the 28th and 68th NSS rounds. It also attempts to isolate the key determinants responsible for these variations. The objective of this paper is twofold; one is to bring out changes in the pattern of regional variations in urban poverty across 17 major states of India from 1973 to 74 to 2011–12 and the second is to identify the determinants responsible for these variations. The selection of regional units is based on the availability of comparable data as well as on theoretical considerations. For this study, therefore, we have considered each state as a single regional unit as they are home to largely homogeneous populations with common history and language, topography, institutions, and laws and at the same time each state is different from the other on account of unique factors. Therefore, interstate variations in this paper imply regional variations across 17 major Indian states. The results obtained through an instrumental variable estimation suggest that this effect is causal and is largely attributable to the positive spillovers of urbanization on the rural economy rather than to the movement of the rural poor to urban areas. Concerning the growth process, both urban–rural and sectoral (output) growth poverty relationships are suggestive of stronger intersectoral linkages in the economy, whereby growth in one sector transmits its gains elsewhere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reviews the economic policies adopted by the Indian government under different policy regimes, provides a political economy perspective of economic growth in the country during 1950–2020 and examines the inclusiveness of the rapid economic growth in recent decades. The growth performance of the economy improved as the economy moved from inward-looking policy regime to the regimes of pro-business and pro-market policies. India's political economy was supportive of the changes in policy regime. After growing at a sluggish rate during the first three decades after 1950–1951, the gross domestic product (GDP) growth accelerated significantly after the pro-business reforms in the 1980s, and there was further acceleration after the pro-market reforms since 1991–1992. It has, however, slowed down in recent years. Nevertheless, it has not been inclusive, as the benefits of growth have not reached all sections of the population and all regions of the country equally. On the contrary, disparities in income across regions and inequalities in income, wealth and consumption among individuals have exacerbated, and the problems of unemployment and poverty have been persisting in the economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anaemia is a major public health issue in India. As per the National Health Family Survey (NFHS), the prevalence of anaemia has increased (55.8% to 59.1%) from NFHS-4 to NFHS-5. Anaemia among adolescent girls is higher (56% to 59%) than among boys (30% to 31%). According to NFHS 5, infant and child mortality rates have improved since the previous round; therefore, attention is required for adolescents because they are future mothers. It is relevant to bring out the prevalence of anaemia in adolescent girls to prevent maternal and child health in the future. This cross-sectional study was conducted among 250 adolescent girls in Munirika urban village, Delhi. 60.4% of anaemia cases were found among 250 study participants. The study revealed that anaemia was highly prevalent among adolescent girls. Anaemia was associated with less literate, lower starta, poor diet and underweight factors. Anaemia was found to be significantly more common in adolescent girls, and this incidence was higher in lower socio-economic strata, parents who were less educated, poor diet habits, and underweight causes. To have an early impact on reducing adolescents' anaemia, school teachers and Frontline Health Workers (FHWs) should educate and counsel them during home visits. There is a need for IFA supplementation and regular diet pattern awareness among adolescent girls. Interpersonal counseling needs to be strengthened at the community level through home visits and initiating awareness programs. The nutritional status of adolescent girls can be improved through counseling and health education. T3 camps should be held at the school level to raise awareness of anaemia among adolescent girls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The study aims to examine the impact of social assistance schemes introduced by the Indian government on poverty alleviation in urban slums. Design/methodology/approach: To accomplish the study's objectives, primary data were collected from 585 beneficiaries of government schemes operating in India's northwestern state using a multistage sampling technique (Punjab). The exploratory factor analysis (EFA) technique reduced the total dataset to its minimum factors. Then, using second-order confirmatory factor analysis, the data's validity and reliability were determined. The data were analyzed using statistical techniques such as one-way ANOVA, t-test and structural equation modeling (SEM). Findings: The study's findings indicate that social assistance provided by the Government of India has a direct and substantial influence on poverty alleviation in urban slums. The study demonstrates how access to basic credit financial services through social assistance programmes has improved the lives of urban poor households living in slums and assisted them in escaping poverty. Research limitations/implications: The investigation was undertaken among a few limitations. First, the in-depth investigation of the study is restricted to only the northwestern state of India solely because of limited resources and time availability. Second, the study focuses primarily on the perspectives of beneficiaries of the social assistance schemes in India. Still, it might be expanded in the future to include additional stakeholders such as bank executives, business colleagues and municipal town panchayats. Practical implications: Due to policymakers' increased emphasis on poor households living in urban slums, this topic is critical for studying many issues. Social implications: The research explores gaps in social welfare schemes to direct policymakers and government authorities to take appropriate steps to aid the urban poor people in sliding out of poverty. Originality/value: By examining the influence of the Indian government's social welfare schemes on poverty reduction in slums, this study contributes to the literature on public assistance schemes and poverty alleviation. This article can assist policymakers in developing nations in increasing financial capability among disadvantaged urban families on a national and international level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The literature on the concentration of urban poverty has considered two kinds of locations as the pockets of poverty: slums (vs. non-slums) and towns (vs. cities). Moving beyond these binaries in discussing spatial concentration of urban poverty, we have made an intersection of these two kinds of residential locations in the post-reform India using four rounds of data from the National Sample Survey. The proportion of relatively poor households was lower in city slum areas than in towns (both slum and non-slum households). Next, this paper tries to find out the level of basic services availability across these intersectional spatial categories and how public policies respond to existing poverty. Availability of basic services was higher in city slums than in town non-slum households. Across all these urban areas, the poor had a lower access to services than the non-poor, and the gap between them had increased over time. These findings also pose serious concerns on the geographical targeting of poverty alleviation programmes in India and on iniquitous resources allocations for providing basic amenities [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Background and aim: Diabetes has become a public health threat. The cost of diabetes care varies in different communities and depends on health-seeking behavior and socio-economic condition of the people. Data on economic and social impact of diabetes treatment among socially weaker section is scanty. Hence, this study was conducted to estimate the direct and indirect cost of treating diabetes among people living in low resource urban setting. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 1065 households in the two selected areas of North Chennai. Data was collected from individuals who were taking diabetes treatment in private health care facilities. The cost toward diabetes treatment for each participant was calculated using their medical bills, tablet strips and also self-reported cost details. Results: A total of 341 individuals were found to have diabetes and out of them, 230 (M:F, 63:167) individuals who attended private health facilities for their diabetes treatment were studied. Around 73% of them earned a monthly income of < INR 10,000. The study revealed that median annual direct cost of treating diabetes among the study participants was amounted to INR 7540. Annual median indirect cost amounted to INR 1650. Conclusion: People living with diabetes in low resource urban setting spent more toward direct medical cost. The out of pocket expenditure was mainly on hospitalization followed by medicines and investigations. The strengthening and provision of appropriate primary public health care services for diabetes in this setting may reduce out of pocket expenditure toward treatment of diabetes in private health care facilities. Highlights: • Nearly 3/4th of study participants who earn INR 10,000/month monitor their diabetes status rarely, but take medicines alone. • They spend INR 6000 on medicines annually while they spend only INR 400 on lab investigations. • More than 1/4th (28.3%) of them were irregular in taking medication and buying medicines with previous tablet strips from the medical shop. • Hypertension (24.7%) was the most common co-morbid condition prevalent among them than any other diabetic complications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This essay discusses the veracity of legal tenure granted to informal settlers on public land in the context of top-down neo-liberal policies superimposed on an already existing regime of urban regulations and welfare measures. It raises questions regarding the fairness of practices where the poor pay the price for changing development models. Insights from Madhya Pradesh (MP) state in India show that legal tenure documents stimulate incremental investment in building and are considered robust enough for channelling government funding for housing improvement. Such investment is secure until the land becomes valuable enough to support profitable redevelopment or is required for high-profile infrastructure projects to refashion cities. This leads to a mixed bag of security and precarity of the poor in a temporal framework of land markets, law, dramatic reordering of city spaces and dualistic policies catering to the market and to welfare. (143 words) [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Covid-19-induced curbs on movement and social distancing, imposed by governments around the world brought transportation and the economy to a standstill in many nations. In India, with its billion-plus population, it severely exposed the problems of the poor, especially millions of internal migrant workers working primarily in unorganised sectors as daily wagers (, 2020) with little or no culture of savings. When the Indian government announced its first lockdown on March 24, 2020 – factories, construction sites, offices, institutions, organisations and the sort immediately suspended all activities indefinitely, nullifying the migrant labour force's ability to earn a living and pay bills as they were forced indoors. Then began India's biggest migration since partition (, 2020), when millions of these migrant workers based in India's big cities began their march home to distant villages. This manuscript reflects on this sudden reverse labour migration, demystifying the reasons for this exodus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A key assumption in economics is that economic growth brings prosperity to all sections of the society in an equitable manner. Historically, economic growth is not associated with equitable distribution of wealth. Governments all over the world make policies and implement them to engineer an equitable distribution of wealth. Financial exclusion is the single most important factor which can keep poorer sections of the society away from the benefits of economic growth. Financial inclusion creates a window of opportunity for poor sections of society to take part in the economic prosperity brought in by economic growth. A financially inclusive society is where all financial products and services are available without difficulty at affordable cost. The Indian government has put policies in place to encourage financial inclusion by making financial products and services available to disadvantaged sections of the society. Jan Dhan Yojana to open bank accounts with zero balance, Aushyaman Bharath Yojana for medical insurance, Atal Pension Yojana for income after retirement, and Sukaya Samruddhi Yojana for supporting a girl child are a few of the schemes promoted by government for encouraging financial inclusion of the poorer sections of the society. Poor people residing in urban areas come to the city in search of a livelihood. They struggle to manage household expenses and some unforeseen events create a burden on their financial resources. Women in the family also participate in the workforce to support the family; many of them work as household domestic workers. The present study has been undertaken to assess the awareness regarding these initiatives among domestic workers in the city of Bengaluru. As per the report released by Bangalore Gruhakarmika Sangha (BBGS) and Manegelasa Kaarmikara Union, there are four lakh domestic workers in Bengaluru and the majority of them are women. Primary data has been collected using in-depth interviews. It is found that the awareness level with respect to government initiatives is not satisfactory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background. Antenatal care (ANC) is the essential regular care of women that prevents potential health problems during pregnancy. In India, the proportion of women who received four or more antenatal visits was only 51% (National Family Health Survey, 2015--2016). An even worse situation prevails in urban areas where women from poor communities face greater health risks. We assessed various barriers women residing in these areas come across in availing ANC services. Methods. This study is a part of a mixed-methods, community-based study, and we report its qualitative component. We conducted the study at the residence of the study participants in September--October 2019. The study participants were women who had less than four antenatal visits throughout the pregnancy. Twelve in-depth interviews were conducted based on data saturation. Data were transcribed and themes were drawn concerning the gender analysis framework. Results. Through this study, we found how gender relations affect the utilization of antenatal services concerning access to resources, division of labour, social norms including the belief of husband and other family members towards pregnancy and decision-making power of women. Conclusion. Our findings underline the importance of making the urban health system gender-sensitive and responsive to the needs of women during pregnancy. There is a need to educate men regarding maternal health so as to allay such social norms that label pregnancy as a woman's responsibility and encouraging them to accompany their wives during pregnancy visits, thus making men a part of antenatal services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study deals with selected aspect of measuring the prevalence of female-based multidimensional poverty in upcoming township of Sehore Municipal Council (Sehore M.C.) with limited economic opportunities reflected in economic poverty as such. The female-based urban poverty is also reflected even in households which are not below poverty line (BPL) and households with higher female work participation, suggesting that not only economic factors are at play when discussing the high rates of female-based socio-economic deprivation in the study area. The parameters selected for this research were considered to be relevant for the evaluation of female-based multidimensional poverty given the local conditions. The study is based on the methodology of multidimensional poverty index (MPI) given by UNDP (2010) in which six domains including housing poverty, economic poverty, educational poverty, health poverty, lack of time for relaxation and lack of empowerment and decision-making power, are selected to evaluate female-based MPI. In order to bring out spatial variation in concentration of female-based MPI, seventeen congested and crowded localities across four wards with varying percentage population of females and female workers were surveyed. The results show that fifteen localities (88%) scores as multidimensionally poor on female-based MPI; one locality is severely poor; and one is vulnerable to multidimensional poverty. Out of the six analysed domains, the contribution of lack of empowerment and decision-making power domain are contributing the most to the female-based MPI (nearly 24%). The study concludes with the justification for selecting the indicators in evaluating the female-based MPI in new-urbanizing society in India along with area specific suggestions to tackle with existing problem of female-based urban poverty in Sehore M.C. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Migration is an essential livelihood strategy in rapidly developing, low‐income contexts. However, this article seeks to analyze occupation choices and the struggle for livelihood among laborers. This study carried out both secondary and primary data; the primary survey was conducted in the Udupi district of Karnataka. Detailed information was gathered from both individual and household levels. According to National Sample Survey data, construction offers the main occupation for short duration migrants, absorbing 36.2% of total short duration migration. However, the field survey findings indicated that at the destination, the construction sector migrants are more vulnerable and struggle for their lives and livelihood in the urban labor segments—poverty and rural unemployment a significant reasons to push the laborers into the construction segment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article investigates the politics of the design of a golf‐focused gated community in Gurgaon, India. It considers the aesthetic uses of golf and architecture that go into the production of a purified urban environment to explore the relationship between urban development, environmental aesthetics and spatial purification in contemporary India. I demonstrate how an architectural focus on golf reproduces the 'distribution of the sensible' by attempting to delimit the field of view: who and what is seen, and what an individual can or cannot see. I show how golf is political—deeply connected to and inseparable from legacies of colonial environmental and spatial purification and exclusion, as well as contemporary aesthetic‐political regimes that justify spatial segregation, cleansing, and the protection of beautiful environments away from the urban poor. The aesthetic emphasis on a beautified, green and empty environment that characterizes the production of golf highlights the aesthetic terms on which environmental selves are imagined and how environmental images are constructed. This is an aesthetic premised on the creation of shared viewership combined with the power to be(long) in a place where one can be with others but not mixed up with them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This paper aims to focus on the housing situation in Indian cities and the various stakeholders involved in the housing sector. This study addresses the conflict in expectations of the supply and demand side of the housing and establishes the factors crucial to making housing successful for all the stakeholders, essential for sustainable urban development. Design/methodology/approach: This paper is developed using the content analysis of preceding independent reviews on housing sustainability by authors across the globe, a review of the current housing situation in Indian cities and a Pilot study of the desired qualitative aspects of housing by the consumer group. Findings: This paper identifies the challenges and constraints of the various stakeholders involved in the housing sector. A comprehensive list of all the parameters, both qualitative and quantitative, essential for successful housing implementation, focused on the preferences of the demand side, also referred to as the "Critical Success Factors (CSFs)" is generated. The results advocate a strict consideration and integration of these CSFs with the housing policies for all future housing projects. Research limitations/implications: Most of the studies conducted in the past have reviewed the housing situation in India from the perspective of the government authorities and the initiatives undertaken by them to improve the housing crisis. However, a gap exists in achieving a balanced understanding of the supply-side constraints, with the demand-side expectations from the housing. Focusing only on the supply without adequately understanding the consumption can only lead to further chaos in the already turbulent housing situation. Originality/value: To the best of author's knowledge, this is among the first attempts to address the housing scenario in urban centers of India, simultaneously from the perspective of both the demand side and the supply side of the housing, giving additional impetus to the expectations of the demand side which are often ignored. This study becomes more relevant in the ongoing pandemic situation to be able to provide appropriate and acceptable housing solutions to all. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article takes up the issue, the link between migration and human capital formation with respect to inland movement of unskilled workforces, which is by no means new, but about which there is no consensus. The importance of migration in accumulating human capital, for both urban as well as for rural areas, and thereby to play a role in poverty alleviation policies is considerable. The decision of investing in human capital depends on the gains and costs associated with these investments. Human capital formation is considered to be a central engine of economic development. In countries like India, migrants in cities generally continue to maintain close links with, and sometimes return to, their areas of origin. It is also observed that in many parts of the country the migration of unskilled workforces is permanent in nature. What may be the cases; the socio-economic background of migrants, the migrants' income and expenditure compared to non-migrating groups, and whether migrants are able to improve their income over time; these issues are still under the scanner. This article focuses on these above issues by surveying different literatures, initiates investigating the link betweenmigration and human capital formation and also indicates that more research is needed to set a proper link between these two in real sense. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Land access is crucial to the well-being of the poorest. The land is a precious asset for the rural and urban poor; it is required for economic activity, poverty reduction, sustainable development, and household well-being. It is also associated with identity, particularly for tribal communities. Land access refers to the ability to utilise, administer, transfer, benefit from resources, and with people's ability to obtain a living in consideration. However, inaccessibility is an inequality limiting people's and households' capacity to connect a livelihood. It is uncertain if the land issue is still relevant and active today and whether it is a legitimate grievance in the Assam of India. Thus, the land is at the heart of many concerns in the Bodoland Territorial Region of Assam and an efficient means of communication among its residents, particularly tribal peoples. On the other hand, equal land access will help the least fortunate and is expected to relieve pressure from land area induced dearth. The research focused on the opportunities for tribal people to access and utilise land, discriminating persons who are completely landless or have limited, insufficient, and insecure access to land and for who land access is important for life or livelihood. It aims to identify land issues and linkages that cause tribes in the region to be concerned, as well as to discuss and offer recommendations on actions and land complexity. The study depicted the majority of the important processes that culminated in tribals' uneasiness and discontent over land. In contrast, it examines the impacts of policy and programmatic activities on the processes and incentives for tribal groups in the region to access land and land concerns that are inextricably linked to the contentious definition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mobile telephony penetration has reached up to the remote location of globe enabling access to communication to each individual. This communication access and technology can also assist individuals to gain financial inclusion specifically in emerging economies like India. This study aims to address the issue of financial inclusion and inclusive economic growth through the development of mobile penetration in India. The study targets financially excluded Indian urban poor segment and aims to address the missing linkages between mobile telephone, digital transaction, and financial inclusion during demonetization. The study follows qualitative research design. Qualitative research design aims to address the nexus between financial inclusion and mobile telephony from the demand side. The study conducts 52 in‐depth interviews collected under naturalistic observations from the urban poor segment of society across major cities of India. Open coding method is followed to analyze the in‐depth interviews to assimilate information from various emerging themes. Qualitative data analysis identifies various themes to understand the usage of mobile telephony for any financial transaction, financial planning by the urban poor segment. The study explores various reasons behind financial exclusion of urban poor segment and how mobile telephony adoption can be utilized to attain financial inclusion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drawing on multi‐sited fieldwork and discourse analysis of government orders, we investigate land‐titling programmes that distribute marginal public land to the poor in both urban and rural South India. We suggest understanding this type of distribution as a process of creating a subaltern category of land ownership to facilitate governance of lands and people entangled in de facto land tenures. Although these titling initiatives have been largely ignored or dismissed as failures in the existing literature, we argue that they have had significant socio‐political effects. First, we argue that, despite the attempt to create a differentiated property regime, titling engenders a complex juridico‐legal terrain where the bounds of 'subaltern citizenship' are contested and negotiated. Second, we show that titling is better understood as a process that creates new social relations and new expectations of the normative relationship between state and citizen. Finally, we suggest that the practices and discourses of the land bureaucracy are a window into the production of spatial relations based on pressures from above and below. In sum, we show how a history of iterative titling has resulted in the entanglement of struggles over possession, personhood and citizenship for marginalized groups in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While the current scholarship on open defecation overwhelmingly focuses on increasing access to sanitation facilities as the solution, millions of people around the world still practise open defecation despite having latrines. This is especially problematic in urban slums where people are more vulnerable to sanitation-related diseases compared with rural areas because of their high population density. We explore why latrines are not being used even when they are available to slum dwellers by identifying social interactions that serve as information channels that promote public latrine use. Using an original survey in New Delhi, we find that slum dwellers who frequently interact with slum leaders, more so than other community leaders, are more likely to use nearby public latrines regularly. A survey of slum leaders finds that their role in fixing and maintaining public latrines and informing others of these acts as well as educating people on hygiene encourage public latrine use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Little research has examined the relationship between rural to urban migration, urbanization, and economic growth in India. While urbanization is a key driver for economic growth in many countries, the rural to urban migration rate in India is low, potentially due to a lowering of the gap between urban-rural health, infrastructure, employment opportunities, and economic conditions. Using panel data models, I investigate the relevant determinants of rural to urban migration at the state level in India from 1991 to 2011. Panel data analysis suggests that higher per capita state income and a lower difference between urban to rural literacy rates encourage rural to urban migration. In this context, I suggest that urban job creation, improved urban infrastructure, and management of urban poverty and income inequality are essential to promoting rural to urban migration in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

What makes community health activism an ethical undertaking? I examine how, among Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHAs) in an urban poor neighborhood in Delhi, health work is underscored by relational sensibilities. By primarily situating the inquiry into the everyday lives of ASHAs, and beyond the formal trajectories of their work, I show how their care work and relational commitments exceed the forms of care foregrounded in public health program protocols. ASHAs operate through an ethics of neighborly intimacy - relational knowledge and acts, guided by ethical obligations toward their neighbors, and underscored by existing dependencies and care, and the detachments and differentiations of relationships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development is seeking to end hunger, achieve food security, improve nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture. It guarantees every citizen with access to adequate food throughout the year through sustainable food systems. Although India has made considerable progress in tackling hunger and poor nutrition in the past two decades, the Global Hunger Index indicates that India suffers from a level of hunger that is 'serious'. During lockdown, the poor food security structure and its functioning have been observed. The urban informal migrant labourers are the most vulnerable to hunger and experienced acute food scarcity. By addressing food security and rights interventions, our cities would be inclusive. The paper discusses the issue of rights to food with regard to the urban informal sector, migrant labourers and experiences during COVID-19 response work in Pune city. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is an analysis of the subjective well-being of women relative to men in low-income urban households in India. Education and employment are pathways to greater financial well-being which is presumably of great salience to poor populations. However, either or both of these may increase aspirations. The social norms that restrict the autonomy of women may mute the impact of education and employment in a way that does not happen to men. To address this hypothesis, the paper uses primary data from a survey of over 1000 respondents across slums in Delhi. The paper finds that education and employment does reduce the well-being of women relative to men. We show that these gender varying correlations are robust to omitted variables bias. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A quarter of 400 million urban Indian residents are poor. Urban poor women are as undernourished as or worse than rural women but urban averages mask this disparity. We present the spectrum of malnutrition and their determinants for more than 26,000 urban women who gave birth within 5 years from the last two rounds of Demographic Health Survey 2006 and 2016. Among urban mothers in the lowest quartile by wealth index (urban poor), 12.8% (95% CI [11.3%, 14.5%]) were short or with height < 145 cm; 20.6% (95% CI [19%, 22.3%]) were thin or with body mass index < 18.5 kg/m2; 57.4% (95% CI [55.5%, 59.3%]) had any anaemia (haemoglobin < 12 g/dL), whereas 32.4% (95% CI [30.5%, 34.3%]) had moderate to severe anaemia; and 21.1% (95% CI [19.3%, 23%]) were obese (body mass index ≥ 25 kg/m2). Decadal gains were significant for thinness reduction (17p.p.) but obesity increased by 12 p.p. Belonging to a tribal household increased odds of thinness by 1.5 (95% CI [1.06, 2.18]) times among urban poor mothers compared with other socially vulnerable groups. Secondary education reduced odds of thinness (0.61; 95% CI [0.48, 0.77]) and higher education of short stature (0.41; 95% CI [0.18, 0.940]). Consuming milk/milk products, pulses/beans/eggs/meats, and dark green leafy vegetables daily reduced the odds of short stature (0.52; 95% CI [0.35, 0.78]) and thinness (0.72; 95% CI [0.54, 0.98]). Urban poor mothers should be screened for nutritional risks due to the high prevalence of all forms of malnutrition and counselled or treated as per risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poor treatment outcomes due to nonadherence and consequent high levels of drug resistance continue to challenge efforts to combat tuberculosis (TB) in India. Mobile health‐ or mHealth‐based reminder cues have been considered in multiple health behavior modification interventions, including TB treatment nonadherence. We conducted a quasi‐experimental study in Ahmedabad, India, to examine the effectiveness of mHealth‐based reminder cues customized to meet diverse patient needs. Results from this experiment indicate that the potential of customized mHealth reminder cues may remain unrealized unless addressed in conjunction with the multifaceted drivers of TB treatment nonadherence. The perspective we present here has broad relevance for future mHealth studies, especially in interpreting challenges that arise within resource‐scarce settings of the urban poor and prevent them from adhering to recommended TB treatment regimens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We study absolute income poverty measurement when households differ in preferences and face different prices. The difficulty arising from price heterogeneity is typically solved using equivalent income, but the choice of the reference price vector remains arbitrary. We provide a way to solve this arbitrariness problem by making the poverty measure consistent with preferences: a household qualifies as poor if and only if she prefers the poverty line bundle to her current consumption bundle. We then prove that defining group/region specific poverty lines is another way of recovering consistency with preferences, provided one uses the headcount ratio. Comparing the resulting three approaches using Indian data, we show that the different approaches lead to different poverty conclusions. We find that not taking preferences into account leads to severely underestimating urban poverty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present the case of an awareness campaign, strategically crafted by a local student political leader, based on a national level policy for urban poor and marginalized, in the city of Ahmedabad in India. The campaign, designed in the form of a foot‐march, was aimed at mobilizing the urban poor, but with a clear ambition of gaining visibility for political mileage. This study reinforces that the mediation role taken up by local leaders transcends the traditional policymaking, in democracies with blurred boundaries between the state and citizens. Further, in local governance structures, with weak participatory spaces for the poor, foot‐marches have the potential to become an extended invited participatory space. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As cases of COVID-19 were rising in India and the country's political leadership instituted a nationwide lockdown, one of the authors of this article received a timely invitation from a friend – a government official – to make rounds with him and his team to various neighbourhoods within the metropolitan city of Bangalore. The team consisted of members working in healthcare, municipal corporation, and local police, and was tasked with ensuring that the government enacted measures of social distancing were being observed by local residents in public spaces. The author witnessed, in real time, the ways in which residents were engaging with the containment measures that were instituted as part of the political leadership's attempt to flatten the curve of COVID-19. What was observed in an urban slum was particularly poignant and illuminating. The observations captured how, for residents of the urban slum, social distancing is more an aspiration than an attainable reality. Indeed, social distancing is impossible if such a protocol does not come with concomitant economic support targeted to the most socially vulnerable in society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Defining and measuring poverty drives substantial part of the poverty research. However, poverty is not just a latent concept, but a lived experience-occurring in contexts and with others. This study empirically finds how the Indian urban-dwelling individuals, who self-identify with middle class, construct poverty. It uses the Social Representations Theory to identify themes within and observe interactions of knowledge. For the first time, Q-methodology is employed to study social representations, integrating it with semi-structured interviews. Factor analysis was performed on Q data using PQMethod and the qualitative interview data were analyzed using thematic analysis with Nvivo. Both the analyses report plurality in how poverty is constructed visually, in metaphors and in rationalities. Textual data demonstrate how individuals organize representations for their purpose and how the process of communicating about a phenomenon becomes a personal project of constructing the self. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drawing on an ethnographic fieldwork in an urban poor area in Delhi, this paper examines how Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHAs) experience and critique sexual violence and harassment in the city. Inherent in these women's critiques is blaming of urban poor men who belong to their social class, resonating with middle-class discourses emerging in urban India. Simultaneously, in their accounts of sexual violence in domestic spaces, women invoked notions of romantic love and familial success. I argue that this discursive tension around urban poor men is linked to women's attempts to assert and claim higher social status and respectability in the context of highly divided and gendered city. ASHAs made claims and asserted themselves in the multiple arenas of urban life, as their work on women's health required cultivation of knowledge and engagement with public spaces, intimate spheres, and cultivation of familial roles propagated by the public healthcare programme. Through a reading of de Certeau's concept of tactics as limited trajectories of claims to urban environments developed among the powerless, I show how access to urban spaces can be revisited as a negotiation and a claim, rather than being shaped only by existing social status. And, I show how responding with readiness to multiple conditions of urban poverty involves negotiation of those claims pertaining both public and private spaces and spheres. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The rising global temperature and frequent heatwaves are the adverse effects of climate change. The causalities and ill impacts of the heat stress were higher among the slum dwellers because of the vulnerable household structures, which were made by heat-trapping materials like tin sheets, cement sheet (asbestos), plastic, and tarpaulin. The houses are not only dwellings but also a source of livelihood for many slum dwellers as they are involved in home-based work. The increase in the temperature of more than 40°C severely affects health and increases energy expenditures. Objective: The present study conducted to identify the efficient cool roof technologies that reduce indoor temperature of the households and improve the heat resilience of dwellings located in the urban slums of Ahmedabad. Methodology: The performances of cool roof interventions were compared with the nonintervention - roof types, namely, tin, asbestos/cement sheet, and concrete. Relative humidity/temperature data loggers (Lascar EL-USB-2-LCD, Sweden) were used to measure the indoor ambient temperature and humidity. The questionnaire-based survey also has been conducted to understand the socioeconomic status and the perceptions related to roofing and health. Results: The results revealed that selected cool roof technologies including Thermocol insulation, solar reflective white paint on the outer surface of the roof, and Modroof are effectively reducing the indoor temperature as compared to the nonintervention roofing. Conclusion: Cool roof technologies have a wider scope as number of informal settlements are increasing across the cities in India and other developing countries. The governments may not able to provide proper housing to all these inhabitants due to various reasons including the land tenure of the habitats. Validated cool roof technologies can be promoted as these structures are not requires legal sanctions and easily dismantled and installed in multiple places and safeguards the investment of urban poor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The poor often experience illness and the treatment costs are high and even catastrophic for the poor. This paper reports the extent of illness, treatment‐seeking behaviour and out of pocket healthcare expenditures and the determinants of treatment‐seeking behaviour and healthcare expenditures among the urban poor living in Delhi. A total of 2,998 households participated in the study. Socio‐demographic details, illness experiences (episodic illness in the past 3 months, hospitalisation in the past 1 year and any chronic illness), treatment seeking and healthcare expenditures were collected for all household members through a pretested, interviewer‐administered questionnaire. Logistic regressions were carried out for factors associated with treatment‐seeking choices. Multiple linear regressions were carried for factors associated with out of pocket expenditures (OOPE). Of the total 15,218 household members (of the 2,998 households), 4,052 (26.6%) experienced episodic illness (mainly fever, respiratory illnesses, food‐ and waterborne diseases and eye infections) in the past 3 months, 230 (1.5%) were hospitalised and 976 (6.4%) have chronic illness (mainly hypertension, diabetes, arthritis and respiratory problems). Of the 2,998 households, 2,225 (74.2%) households reported at least one event of illness. Unqualified practitioners were the main source of care for episodic illnesses. Perceived seriousness of the illness, having Employees State Insurance Scheme (ESIS) benefit, higher educational status of the head of the household, higher monthly household incomes, belonging other backward castes and settled‐migrant status led to seeking formal care. Dengue was the main reason for hospitalisation. Government including ESIS hospitals were mainly utilised for hospitalisation. Healthcare expenditures were higher for private healthcare. Possession of mandatory health insurance was protective against OOPEs. OOPEs were more for the men/boys and for the young. Improving access to government healthcare services is important. Extending the ESIS to the unorganised workers including urban poor migrants should be considered so as to bring them under mandatory social protection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

India's population is 1.28 billion with an average growth rate, from 2010-2015, at 1.3 percent per annum. The 21.9 percent of the Indian population live below the national poverty line (GOI, 2013). According to a 2001 census, India's cities have a slum population of 42.6 million (23.7 percent of the urban population). The secondary data related to poverty, migration, slum population were collected from report of the Expert Group to review the Methodology for measurement of Poverty, Government of India, Planning Commission-June, 2014 and A statistical compendium on urbanization and poverty in India, 2010 published from ministry of housing and poverty alleviation, national building organization. The percentage share of population BPL in rural area is 56.44 percent and in urban area is 49.01 percent during 1973-74 which was decreased to 25.70 percent and 13.70 percent, respectively. The percentage of slums in western region drastically increased from 24.50 percent to 33.45 percent and where as marginally increased in central region. The highest migration of male was noticed from rural to urban (39.00%) followed by urban to urban (24.80%). The study indicates that 53.20 percent of slum peoples have availed the banking services and more than 45 percent of slum peoples have not availed the banking services in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Diabetes mellitus is increasing its share of burden to the health-related problems in developing countries such as India. Urban slum residents constitute the "vulnerable population" who lack the basic health amenities. Lack of effective screening for primary prevention has been one of the reasons for the rising burden. Materials and Methods: The cross-sectional study was conducted among 400 adults aged between 30 and 60 years residing in a settled slum of Rukmini Nagar area of Belagavi city, Karnataka. Data were collected after taking written informed consent from each participant using a pretested questionnaire that included demographic information and details of the risk factors. Risk of developing diabetes was assessed by using Indian Diabetes Risk Score. Results are expressed as proportions, and analysis was done using Chi-square test and multiple logistic regression analysis. Results: The mean age of participants was 44.3 ± 8.7 years. The proportion of low, moderate, and high risk of developing diabetes mellitus was 7%, 63%, and 30%, respectively. The prevalence of newly diagnosed cases was 10.25%. Moreover, 57.1% of them with positive family history were in the high risk category; 76.9% of the sedentary workers were at higher risk; overweight and obese individuals had higher proportion of the high and moderate risk (P < 0.0001). Correlation coefficient (R) was 0.782, and coefficient of determination (R2) was 0.61. Conclusions: Our study demonstrated that advancing age, low physical activity, family history, overweight, and obesity were the prominent factors that predicted the risk of diabetes in the near future. Hence, focused interventions for urban slum dwellers are imperative and draw special attention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Current research on climate change adaptation in cities highlights the role of local governments in facilitating adaptation actions, but rarely assesses whether (and if so, how) local communities organise around emerging climate priorities to affect political change. This paper explores changing state–society relationships through the reconstitution of community collectives and advocacy organisations for advancing climate change adaptation in the Indian city of Indore. The paper shows that communities are indeed recognising the need for adaptation but are, at the same time, integrating adaptation actions with existing strategies for advocating development rights. Communities are also rebuilding alliances between municipal and local institutions for public service and infrastructure provision, which point to the centrality of community politics in urban climate adaptation processes. However, such mobilisations are often dependent on existing political networks and a legacy of advocacy around poverty alleviation needs, which sideline more transformative agendas around inclusiveness, equity, and resilient urban futures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

India lives in its villages. Literally and from the social, economic and political perspectives the statement is valid even today. Around 65% of the State's population is living in rural areas. People in rural areas should have the same quality of life as is enjoyed by people living in sub urban and urban areas. Further, there are cascading effects of poverty, unemployment, poor and inadequate infrastructure in rural areas on urban centres causing slums and consequential social and economic tensions manifesting in economic deprivation and urban poverty. Hence, Rural Development which is concerned with economic growth and social justice, improvement in the living standard of the rural people by providing adequate and quality social services and minimum basic needs become essential. In rural areas not everyone is granted with medical services and medical help and it has become a growing concern. Corporate Social Responsibility is thus considered very important as far as rural areas are concerned. The present study focuses on detailed analysis of medical services reaching out to the rural areas in Haryana and the efforts made by Government and Private Hospitals to reach out to the rural people of Haryana. The study also talks about the importance of CSR in hospitals and how would it benefit the masses. The results of the study indicate urgent need of improved medical services for betterment of health of rural population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As South Asia urbanizes, urban poverty is becoming more important in the development agenda. Many slums in India have existed for decades, despite multiple policies and programmes for reducing urban poverty. This article reveals the diversity of slums as outcomes linked to their internal development and their relations to the city’s macro-economic policies and institutional landscape. The focus is on the way these relations shape opportunities and constraints of households’ livelihoods over time in two slum settlements of Chennai. The research uses mixed methods to show how outcomes for households are closely linked to the settlement history, institutions and city region of which they are a part of. The article argues that slum development models and policies should promote relational understandings of slum areas to influence policies towards more effective support for reducing poverty among residents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In India, a new approach to finance has been transforming shelter options for low-income households and supporting community-led development over recent decades. This paper examines the financial architecture developed to support hundreds of community-driven efforts by grassroots groups working in alliance with the Mumbai-based NGO SPARC. Much has been written about this Alliance’s work, but its financial architecture has had little attention. This paper seeks to explain how grants given for grassroots community development in urban areas can produce new forms of entrepreneurial behaviour among the urban poor, showing how they can design and execute large projects with the expertise gained from more modest efforts. It also shows how this Alliance has managed, invested and revolved these grants and other sources of funding, including its own savings, to leverage resources and opportunities for inclusive city development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Data collection methods and poverty measures have not caught up with the reality of an increasingly urbanised world; as a result, urban poverty may be underestimated. This has important implications for targeting interventions and allocating resources in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Several problems affect the measurement of urban poverty: definitions of ‘slum’ settlements vary widely, data collection may undercount slum populations, insufficient data disaggregation may conceal intra-city disparities, and common indicators and assumptions may be ill-suited to assessing both income and multidimensional poverty in urban contexts. However, not enough is known about the extent to which these issues affect the resulting estimates. This paper contributes to the existing literature by illustrating the scale of the bias associated with common practices in measuring urban poverty at different stages of the production of poverty estimates. The analysis draws on selected examples in the literature alongside new analysis of data from Demographic and Health Surveys and Household Income and Expenditure Surveys. The article also provides recommendations on how to address each of these problems to improve urban poverty measurement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most of the Asian countries face challenge of poverty which is linked with unemployment. Lack of assets and income make poor unable to invest for self employment or for knowledge /skill development leading to employment. Access to financial services may help people to come out of poverty through variety of ways like availing credit, insurance and saving facilities. In India, in spite of several initiatives for financial inclusion, field level data shows that by merely opening bank account the access to credit may not be there and financial inclusion in true sense may not happen. The microfinance movement had regional success in India. There are almost 35% urban poor in India indicating the need of innovations in financial services for them. 'Rahat Urban Credit Cooperative Society' was a initiative in 2008 of few persons belonging to Islam religion and believing on the teachings of Quran that the interest should not be taken. Though inspired by a particular religion the services are extended to all community groups. In today's context when different religions are discussed for using the religious values/teachings negatively, Rahat will be a unique example how religious teachings can be utilized positively for society's benefits. Since 2011, besides usual financial products, it gives interest free and collateral free loans for urban poor for self employment and for consumption purposes. The case study focuses on understanding the community based business model and its impact on urban poor in terms of their financial needs by analyzing the financial performance. The study explores how 98% recovery rate for loans is there and how depositors are attracted for interest free product. It also tries to understand the use of social capital in provision of financial services for urban poor having inability to give collateral. 'Rahat' means relief. The present paper l brings out a Rahat model of financial services and inclusion of urban poor and try to understand how it has brought the relief in urban poor lives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article seeks to insert questions of temporality into the core of geographical analysis of the state. It does so by drawing on extended fieldwork in slums and so-called unauthorized colonies in Delhi, India, to describe how those who live on the margins of the state employ a topological sensibility in accessing, influencing, and “timing” the state. By attending to the temporal rhythms of these residents' everyday efforts to secure water, electricity, and building permission, the article proposes two topological figures that move beyond narrower spatial metaphors that read that state either as a fixed, hierarchically scaled entity or as a flat, wholly malleable assemblage without consequential spatial order or historicity. These are thetopological stateand thestate outside itself. The analysis of the topological state centers on how real-time connections are forged between residents and key nodes in the bureaucracy, producing momentary reconfigurations of state form that allow low-level state actors to capture authority even as bureaucratic hierarchy is maintained. The analysis of thestate outside itselffocuses on how the routine actions of water engineers and municipal officers challenge the common conceptual mapping of the state as a surface with an inside and outside. Taken together, these figures reveal a temporally adept mode of political agency open to conjunctural possibilities and proximate connections but often dismissed as a near-sighted political disposition symptomatic of the poor and marginal classes' submission to clientalist politics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]