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Eocene igneous rocks along the Gangdese belt in southern Tibetan Plateau are important for understanding the India–Eurasia collision and Tibetan Plateau uplift. These magmatic rocks are widely considered to be related to roll-back or break-off of the Neotethyan slab during northward subduction. However, Eocene rhyolites in the northwestern Gangdese belt (SW Qiangtang margin) do not fit either the rollback or breakoff models. This paper investigates these Early Eocene lavas and compares them with contemporaneous igneous rocks along the Gangdese belt via detailed field observations, petrology, zircon geochronology, zircon Lu–Hf isotopes and whole-rock geochemistry. These felsic lavas form large outcrops in western Tibet and have two zircon U–Pb ages of 54.71 ± 0.14 Ma and 54.74 ± 0.27 Ma. They have high SiO2 and alkali contents, FeO*/MgO, and Ga/Al ratios as well as strongly negative Eu anomalies and slightly positive zircon εHf(t) values (+2.5 to +4.4). Both Ti-in-zircon and Zr saturation thermometers confirm high magmatic temperatures (~900°C). They are ferroan, A-type rhyolites. Furthermore, the distinctive low εHf(t) values imply that these rhyolites are likely partial melting products of the southwestern Qiangtang Terrane. The lithosphere in this region undergone long-term shortening and thickening since 80–95 Ma. Pre-thickened lithosphere may be a prerequisite for the Early Eocene delamination, and the simultaneous inducement is a far-field tectonic effect from the India–Eurasia collision. We suggest that: (1) India collided with Eurasia before 55 Ma and triggered delamination to form the Shiquanhe A-type rhyolites on the southwestern Qiangtang margin thereafter; and (2) tectonic stresses related to India–Eurasia collision during the Eocene were transmitted efficiently over large distances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The sinking of lithosphere at subduction zones couples Earth''s exterior with its interior, spawns continental crust and powers a tectonic regime that is unique to our planet. In spite of its importance, it is unclear how subduction is initiated. Two general mechanisms are recognized: induced and spontaneous nucleation of subduction zones. Induced nucleation (INSZ) responds to continuing plate convergence following jamming of a subduction zone by buoyant crust. This results in regional compression, uplift and underthrusting that may yield a new subduction zone. Two subclasses of INSZ, transference and polarity reversal, are distinguished. Transference INSZ moves the new subduction zone outboard of the failed one. The Mussau Trench and the continuing development of a plate boundary SW of India in response to Indo–Asian collision are the best Cenozoic examples of transference INSZ processes. Polarity reversal INSZ also follows collision, but continued convergence in this case results in a new subduction zone forming behind the magmatic arc; the response of the Solomon convergent margin following collision with the Ontong Java Plateau is the best example of this mode. Spontaneous nucleation (SNSZ) results from gravitational instability of oceanic lithosphere and is required to begin the modern regime of plate tectonics. Lithospheric collapse initiates SNSZ, either at a passive margin or at a transform/fracture zone, in a fashion similar to lithospheric delamination. The theory of hypothesis predicts that seafloor spreading will occur in the location that becomes the forearc, as asthenosphere wells up to replace sunken lithosphere, and that seafloor spreading predates plate convergence. This is the origin of most boninites and ophiolites. Passive margin collapse is a corollary of the Wilson cycle but no Cenozoic examples are known; furthermore, the expected strength of the lithosphere makes this mode unlikely. Transform collapse SNSZ appears to have engendered new subduction zones along the western edge of the Pacific plate during the Eocene. Development of self-sustaining subduction in the case of SNSZ is signaled by the beginning of down-dip slab motion, causing chilling of the forearc mantle and retreat of the magmatic arc to a position that is 100–200 km from the trench. INSZ may affect only part of a plate margin, but SNSZ affects the entire margin in the new direction of convergence. INSZ and SNSZ can be distinguished by the record left on the upper plates: INSZ begins with strong compression and uplift, whereas SNSZ begins with rifting and seafloor spreading. Understanding conditions leading to SNSZ and how hinged subsidence of lithosphere changes to true subduction promise to be exciting and fruitful areas of future research. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Focuses on the unresolved international issue of the status of Kashmir, India, a domestic issue involving India and Pakistan. Background information on Kashmir; Political problems affecting the state; Reasons for these problems; Solutions to these problems.