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Microplastic (MP) load in urban sewage sludge could vary annually in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) depending on seasonal precipitation and human activities. We investigated the seasonal dynamics in abundance and characterization of MP loading in WWTPs located in two cities across River Ganga, India's ecologically sensitive upper stretch. During a 12-month seasonal sampling (pre-monsoon, monsoon, and post-monsoon), sludge samples (n = 36) (primary sludge, PS; drying bed sludge, DBS) were collected and analyzed for load, polymer types, shape, colour, and size (20-1000 µm). Across the three seasons, MP concentrations (particles/kg) were found to be in the ranges of 93.4 ± 5.0 × 10 3 -189.4 ± 11 × 10 3 in the PS and 39.6 ± 4.0 × 10 3 -152.0 ± 7 × 10 3 in the DBS. The trend of MP loading was in the following order: monsoon > post-monsoon > pre-monsoon. The dominant MP size was 50-200 µm (36.22%) followed by 20-50 µm (27.65%), 200-500 µm (24.55%) and 500-1000 µm (11.58%). ATR-FTIR results revealed polypropylene, polyethylene terephthalate, polyvinyl chloride, and nylon dominating MP in sludge. This study highlights the importance of long-term monitoring of MP loading in sewage sludge to offer a more accurate estimate of MP contamination in sludge from WWTPs and develop a possible mechanism for its elimination to safeguard the environment., (© 2024. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

Dangi, Meenu, Arnab Sadhukhan, Poninder Kumar, S. Bandopadhayay, Vijay K. Sharma, V.K. Patra, Manu Chaudhary, and Vipin Rana. Retinal manifestations in high altitude. High Alt Med Biol . 24:296-301, 2023. Aim: To study the high altitude (HA)-related retinal manifestations among security personnel and thus to provide new insights into the characteristics and mechanisms of retinopathy. Materials and Methods: This was a multicentric, nonrandomized prospective observational and descriptive study. We studied 54 security personnel over 1 year, who were referred from HA areas of northern India and north-eastern India for ocular problems. Complete coagulation profile was performed among patients with vascular occlusion. Results: There were total of 54 patients with ages ranging from 22 to 55 years. HA retinopathy was noticed in 28 patients: central retinal vein occlusion (6 patients), branch retinal vein occlusion (4 patients), branch retinal artery occlusion (1 patient), central retinal artery occlusion (4 patients), ocular ischemic syndrome (1 patient), central serous chorioretinopathy (7 patients), acetazolamide-induced maculopathy (1 patient), and solar retinopathy (2 patients). Along with an increased hematocrit, serum homocysteine was raised in the majority of vascular occlusions. The mean age was 38.16 years, the mean altitude was 14,716 ft, and the mean duration of stay was 11.2 weeks. Conclusion: Hypobaric hypoxia due to HA is a potential risk for HA retinopathy and associated vascular occlusions. Aside from increased hematocrit, hyperhomocysteinemia is a potential cause of vascular occlusions.

Background: The state of Manipur, North East India has distinct topology of hill and valley regions with vast agroclimatic variability, being considered as one of the centers of rice diversity. The indigenous Manipur black rice cultivars exhibit wide range of diversity in morphology, pericarp color, shape and size of grain, aroma, glutinous or non-glutinous features but remain less characterised. Many of these cultivars, such as those named Chakhao, are endowed with multiple health benefits due to high anthocyanins, and hold special importance for the local people. It is important to analyse the genetic diversity and population structure for this germplasm with unique allelic combinations to utilize in rice breeding programme., Methods and Results: We characterized total soluble seed protein fractions to not only fingerprint the 45 indigenous black rice cultivars but assess their genetic relatedness. Cluster analyses generated mainly two groups, complemented by PCoA scatter plot ascertaining geographical distinction. The hill black rice were more diverse. The population structure analysis revealed seven subpopulations indicating high genetic variability. The 24 polymorphic bands were scored in the range of 127.8 to 10.3 kDa comprised of four protein fractions. Three polypeptide bands each were ascribed to known fractions of glutelins and prolamins, while one band each could be described for albumin and globulin fractions, besides other diagnostic bands., Conclusion: Some diverse cultivars were Amubi, Chedo Anal, Chipi Buh, Athebu, Poireton, BuPu Mui, Kotha Chahao II. These cultivars can be used in future black rice breeding programmes. This can further prevent genetic erosion and protect intellectual property rights., (© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature B.V.)

Fall Armyworm (FAW), Spodoptera frugiperda, is a polyphagous pest capable of feeding over 80 plant species and was indigenous to the Western Hemisphere. Within a span of 4 years, FAW has established itself throughout most of the regions in Africa and Asia causing significant losses in maize production. Owing to its revamped distribution range, it would be prudent to analyze the ensuing genetic changes and study the emerging phylogeographic patterns across the world. In this regard, we would like to provide a current snapshot of genetic diversity of FAW in India 2 years after the initial introduction and compare it with the worldwide diversity in order to trace the origins and evolutionary trajectories of FAW in India. We have investigated around 190 FAW samples from different regions in India for strain identity and polymorphism analysis on the basis of partial mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I (COI) gene sequences. Apart from the ancestral rice and corn strain haplotype, our study demonstrates the presence of 14 more haplotypes unique to India at a haplotype diversity of 0.356. We were also able to record inter-strain hybrid haplotypes of rice and corn strains in India. Regional heterogeneity within Indian populations seems to be quite low representative of extensive migration of FAW within India. Distribution analysis of pairwise differences and rejection of neutrality tests suggest that the FAW population in India might be undergoing expansion. Our data is consistent with the findings suggesting a recent and common origin for invasive FAW populations in Asia and Africa, and does not indicate multiple introductions to India. This study reports the highest genetic diversity for Indian FAW populations to date and will be useful to track the subsequent evolution of FAW in India. The findings would have important ramifications for FAW behavior and composition throughout the world.

The prevalence of physical inactivity in India is estimated to be at 34%, the highest among South Asian nations. Interventions, such as outdoor gymnasiums/gyms, aiming to promote physical activity, are becoming popular worldwide, including in India. This paper presents the first empirical evidence on outdoor gyms in India from a qualitative perspective. Semi-structured, in-depth interviews of 56 outdoor gym stakeholders-40 users, 10 non-users, 4 healthcare providers and 2 outdoor gym implementing municipality authorities were conducted in the National Capital Region of India. The interviews were transcribed and analyzed through the Framework Method. The qualitative findings present the perceived benefits, barriers/challenges to using and provide insights for further improving and scaling up outdoor gyms in India. Health enhancement in the form of improved general fitness, body weight control and diversification of physical exercise routines, social connectivity, easy accessibility, affordability, green outdoor surroundings, and a place of intrigue and attraction in respective parks were the major reported benefits of outdoor gyms. Low gym equipment to user ratio was one of the major challenges to gym use across the user group. Healthcare providers and non-users were majorly concerned about the potentially incorrect and unsupervised use of outdoor gym equipment. Major suggestions for improvement were increasing the number of equipment installed, regular equipment maintenance, and the presence of an on-site physical exercise trainer. Outdoor gymnasiums present as a viable option for promoting physical activity and should be scaled up systematically to improve the health of the populations across India and other similar nations., (© The Author(s) 2020. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. For permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Background: Leprosy represents a chronic progressive debilitating disease. The severe morbidity associated with leprosy predisposes the patients to opportunistic infections. To assess the oral candida prevalence and species specificity in lepromatous leprosy patients., Methods: The cross-sectional study included 70 lepromatous leprosy patients under a multi-drug regimen for less than 1 year (group 1) and 70 healthy volunteers (group 2). Both group 1 and 2 were matched for potential confounding factors including age, gender, ethnicity, absence of HIV co-infection. Oral swab samples obtained from both groups were subjected to a series of conventional and molecular diagnostic modalities., Results: Yeast growth was statistically higher (0.0006) in group 1 (45.7%) than in group 2 (18.5%). 28 of the 32 yeast growth in group 1 and all 13 yeast growth in group 2 were identified as candida. Among the 28 candida species in group 1, 23 (71.88%) were Candida albicans, 3 (9.37%) were Candida parapsilosis, 1 (3.13%) was Candida lusitaniae and 1 (3.13%) was Candida nivariensis. Among group 2, 11 (84.6%) were Candida albicans, 1 (7.7%) was Candida parapsilosis and 1 was Candida tropicalis., Conclusion: Oral candida prevalence is higher in leprosy patients than in healthy individuals, indicating a predisposition towards opportunistic infections. The increasing prevalence of the non-candida albicans species in leprosy is a major concern as they have shown to possess inherent resistant towards common anti-fungal agents., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest None declared., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Dapsone has been the mainstay for the treatment of leprosy since its discovery in the 1940s. However, hematological disturbances are not uncommon in leprosy patients on daily dapsone therapy. Hence, the present study was conducted to document the hematologic alterations observed in lepromatous leprosy patients treated with Dapsone 100 mg daily., Methodology: A cross-sectional observational study was conducted amongst 32 lepromatous leprosy patients treated with Dapsone 100 mg daily. A complete hemogram was conducted for all the study recruits. The test results were compared against the standard average values for adults for the given variables. The one sample t-test was employed to compare the difference between the study values and the standard normal values for adults. The statistical significance was considered at p < 0.05., Results: The study reveals a marked decrease in hemoglobin concentration in patients on dapsone, 100 mg daily. Other hematological alterations found were reduced platelet count, reduced mean platelet volume, reduced Hematocrit, reduced Mean Corpuscular hemoglobin, reduced Mean Corpuscular hemoglobin concentration. (p < 0.05)., Conclusion: Treatment of lepromatous leprosy with 100 mg daily Dapsone therapy may lead to hematological alterations. These findings are suggestive of dapsone-induced hemolysis., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest None declared., (Copyright © 2019. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Objectives: To clinically evaluate the oro-facial manifestations in lepromatous leprosy patients undergoing multidrug therapy in Central India., Materials and Methods: Two hundred patients from 2 leprosy treatment centers in Central India who satisfied the diagnostic criteria set by the WHO (2006-2010) committee on leprosy were included in the study. To avoid bias, only patients who started the multi-drug treatment regimen less than 1 year ago were included. All the patients were examined for the presence of oral and facial manifestations. To confirm that the oro-facial manifestations were not due to HIV co-infection, serological diagnostic tests including ELISA, Immunocomb, and Tri-dot were performed., Results: Majority of the patients (n = 189) exhibited oral (n = 145) and/or facial (n = 147) manifestations. The most common oral lesions were found to be fissuring and depapillation of the tongue followed by fibrosis and loss of uvula. Among the facial manifestations, facial skin lesions and loss of eyebrows were most prevalent followed by sagging of facial skin and facies leonine., Conclusion: The facial manifestations of leprosy are quite common, readily recognizable, and relatively specific to the disease. Thus, the presence of facial manifestations, especially with co-existing oral lesions must prompt the clinician to mandate further investigations to confirm the diagnosis., Clinical Relevance: As evidenced by the present study, facial manifestations and oral lesions are an integral part of leprosy. In addition to being a diagnostic parameter, facial manifestations and oral lesions could potentially be used to monitor the disease progression and treatment outcome.

The present study region comprises granite and granite gneisses aquifer system constituted by Precambrian rocks. Groundwater is the primary source for drinking and other domestic purposes. Many developing regions in the world suffer from lack of safe drinking water. A rural part of Wanaparthy District in Telangana State, India, is one of them. For this reason, the groundwater samples collected from the study region were analyzed for pH, TDS, Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , Na + , K + , HCO 3 - , Cl - , SO 4 2- , NO 3 - and F - and evaluated groundwater quality criteria, using ionic spatial distribution (ISD), entropy water quality index (EWQI) and principal component analysis (PCA). The ISD maps show that some locations are not suitable for drinking purpose due to exceeding concentrations of TDS, Mg 2+ , Na + , K + , HCO 3 - , Cl - , NO 3 - and F - , compared to those with national drinking water quality standards. According to the EWQI, about 3%, 47%, 43% and 7% of the total area come under the excellent, good, medium and extremely poor water quality types for drinking purpose, respectively. Chadha's diagram classified the area as carbonate hardness (63%), non-carbonate alkali (17%), carbonates alkali (13%) and non-carbonate hardness (7%) zones. The binary diagrams (Na +  + K + vs TC, Na + vs Ca 2+ and HCO 3 - vs TC) indicate that the quality of groundwater is controlled by influences of water-rock interactions, mineral weathering and dissolution, ion exchange and evaporation as well as the impact of anthropogenic sources. The PCA transferred the chemical variables into three principal components accounts for about 81% of the total variance. The high positive loadings of PC1 (Cl - , TDS, SO 4 2- , Na + , NO 3 - , Mg 2+ and HCO 3 - ) stand for processes of silicate weathering and dissolution, ion exchange and evaporation, and the influence of domestic waste waters, irrigation return flows and chemical fertilizers on the groundwater system, the PC2 (F - and pH) signifies the alkaline nature of groundwater, which causes fluorosis, and the PC3 (K + ) is a result of potassium fertilizers. The study helps to take remediate measures at a specific site and hence suggests the treatment of water before its drinking and also the recharge of the aquifer artificially to improve the groundwater quality.

The role of toddy (palm wine) as an independent risk factor for amoebic liver abscess (ALA) is not clear. In a cross-sectional study, the clinico-demographic profiles of inpatients with ALA were examined. Microscopy examination of toddy (n = 43) samples was performed. A total of 198 patients with ALA were enrolled, most of whom were: admitted during the May-August months (48%); chronic alcoholic (85% [70% toddy]); malnourished (85%); and of low socioeconomic status (88%). Clinical and laboratory parameters were comparable between toddy and distilled alcohol drinkers. None of the toddy samples revealed presence of cysts and trophozoites of Entamoeba histolytica .

Group B streptococcal rectovaginal colonization prevalence in women of Indian descent living in the United States was 24.7% comparable with US rates but higher than rates reported from India. The capsular polysaccharide types were distinct in that type V was most common and 33% of group B streptococcal strains were nontypeable.

Context: The use of tobacco/betel quid can alone lead to death. India is the fourth largest consumer of tobacco/betel quid in the world and the third-largest producer of tobacco/betel quid after China and Brazil., Aims: A case-control study was carried out to assess the prevalence and various risk factors among potentially malignant disorders (PMD) and oral cancer patients of central India., Settings and Design: A total of 100 clinically and histopathologically diagnosed PMD and oral cancer patients were selected for the study., Materials and Methods: A histopathologically confirmed 100 patients who were suffering from PMD and oral cancers were selected and an equal number 100 healthy controls who were age- and sex-matched at par with the cases were also examined and interviewed. Chi-square (χ(2)) test and adjusted odds ratio (ORs) with 95% confidence interval (CI) were calculated to estimate the suspected risk factors for PMD and oral cancers by using multivariate logistic regression analysis. Significance level was set at P < 0.05., Results: Statistically significant difference was observed in the age group, socioeconomic status (SES), duration, frequency, exposure time and synergistic effect of tobacco/betel quid chewing, smoking, and alcohol drinking in our study population., Conclusions: Chewing tobacco/betel quid is a strong risk factor in the development of PMD and oral cancer. Also age, gender, SES, education, and occupation influence the development of PMD and oral cancer.

Background/aims: This study aimed at investigating if M235T polymorphism in the AGT gene and A/G(I8-83) polymorphism in the REN gene correlate with end-stage renal disease (ESRD)., Methods: We analyzed 173 ESRD patients and 329 individuals with normal kidney function for differences in the genotype distribution of AGT-M235T and REN-A/G(I8-83) polymorphisms between the two groups. The data for cases and controls were compared using the χ(2) test., Results: We found significantly higher levels of serum creatinine and CRP in cases in comparison to controls (p < 0.0001). Data comparison showed a significant association of AGT M235T substitution with ESRD in the dominant model (p = 0.008) and in the comparison of the heterozygous substitution with the homozygous common genotype (p = 0.005). Similarly, REN A/G(I8-83) polymorphism showed a significant difference in the distribution of genotypes between cases and controls (p < 0.038) such that a heterozygous substitution was significantly more common in the ESRD cases in comparison to the homozygous common genotype (p = 0.023)., Conclusion: We conclude that heterozygous substitutions at the AGT M235T and REN A/G(I8-83) loci correlate significantly with ESRD in a north Indian population., (© 2015 S. Karger AG, Basel.)

End stage renal disease is a clinical state that extends from chronic renal failure and is marked by an irreversible loss of renal function. TGF-β1 mediated renal fibrosis is a common pathology implicated in this form of kidney disease. In this study circulating protein and mRNA levels of TGF-β1 cytokine were investigated among ESRD patients and respective controls from North India. Physician diagnosed 192 ESRD patients, on hemodialysis, and 130 normal controls participated in the present study. TGF-β1 circulating levels were measured by ELISA and its expression was quantified using competitive-PCR. Mean TGF-β1 protein levels were 2.7-fold lower in ESRD patients as compared to normal controls (p<0.001). Additionally, TGF-β1 mRNA transcripts of this cytokine were also significantly lower in the diseased population compared to controls (p<0.001). These results imply that TGF-β1 has not played its anticipated pro-fibrotic role and anti-inflammatory function in the studied population., (© 2013.)

Background: Malocclusion is one of the most common dental problems in mankind. Planning orthodontic treatment as well as an interceptive approach within a public health system requires information on the prevalence of malocclusions., Aim: The aim of the study was to assess the prevalence of malocclusion and orthodontic treatment needs among 12-15-year-old school children of fishermen of Kutch coast, Gujarat, India., Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional descriptive survey was conducted among 947 school children offishermen of Kutch coast, Gujarat, India aged 12-15 years. The prevalence of malocclusion and orthodontic treatment needs was assessed using Dental Aesthetic Index. General information on demographic data was also recorded. A c2 test, analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Sheffe's test were employed for statistical analysis., Results: Malocclusion and orthodontic treatment need was reported among 33.4% of the participants. Younger age group and female gender had significantly greater treatment need. Males and older age groups had significantly lesser prevalence of anterior crowding and largest anterior maxillary irregularity., Conclusions: Orthodontic treatment need among 33.4% calls for developing school based oral health promotion programmes for children with an inculcation of orthodontic treatment and educational programmes for parents (fishermen) addressing prevention and early interceptive treatment of malocclusion.

Background: We studied the demographic profile and outcome of traumatic cataract after penetrating and blunt ocular trauma in children in northern India., Methods: We reviewed the medical records of children with penetrating and blunt ocular trauma associated with traumatic cataract who underwent cataract surgery with posterior chamber intraocular lens implantation and having more than 1 year follow up. We evaluated the demographic characteristics and visual outcome in the affected eye., Results: Of the 100 children (100 eyes), 65 were penetrating trauma and 35 were blunt trauma. The common modes of injury in the penetrating group were wooden splinters in 30.8% and bow and arrow in 15.4%. Fire crackers and trauma during play with ball were seen in 34% and 11.4% of blunt eye trauma, respectively. The age ranged from 1 to 14 years (mean, 7.8 years) in the penetrating trauma and 2 to 15 years (mean, 8.3 years) in the blunt trauma group. The best corrected visual acuity of 20/40 or better was achieved in 57.6% eyes in penetrating group compared with 71.4% in the blunt trauma group. Visually significant posterior capsular opacification developed in 32.3% eyes in penetrating group and 28.6% eyes in blunt trauma group. Glaucoma was diagnosed in 4.6% eyes in penetrating group and 8.6% in blunt trauma group., Conclusion: Eye injuries with traumatic cataract are associated with significant visual impairment. There were more children with penetrating eye injuries as compared with blunt trauma. Cataract surgery with intraocular lens implantation is a preferred method for visual rehabilitation in these children., Level of Evidence: Epidemiologic study, level IV.

Aim: The purpose of this study was to detect the C-deletion mutation of the p53 gene at exon 4 of codon 63 in the saliva of oral squamous cell carcinoma in central India., Methods: The study was carried out in 30 oral squamous cell carcinoma cases and five healthy controls with no habit of betel nut and tobacco chewing. The C-deletion mutation of the p53 gene at exon 4 of codon 63 was detected in the saliva samples by using polymerase chain reaction., Results: In this study, C-deletion at exon 4 of codon 63 was detected in 28 of 30 oral squamous cell carcinoma cases (93.33%), but was negative in all five healthy controls and two oral squamous cell carcinoma cases., Conclusions: The results indicated that C-deletion mutation at exon 4 of codon 63 of the p53 gene in the saliva might be a plausible molecular marker for oral squamous cell carcinoma patients with a habit of betel nut and tobacco lime quid chewing. The results further emphasize the presence of p53 gene mutation in patients with oral squamous cell carcinoma, which can be detected in the saliva through polymerase chain reaction., (© 2010 Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty Ltd.)

Background: In recent decades, there has been a tremendous surge of interest in issues related to child health. The present study was carried out to reveal the DMFT/deft status of children in the age group of 1-12 years, residing in orphanages from Pune, India., Aims and Objectives: To explore the DMFT/deft status in various orphanages from Pune (India). To find out differences, if any, between the DMFT/deft status in orphanages from Pune, India, and the general population of children below 12 years of age in Maharashtra state, India as well as all over India., Results: DMFT/deft of the orphanages was found to be 2.58 in the age group 1-5 years and 2.5 in the age group 6-12 years with caries prevalence in 70.27% of the children. An incidental finding of Molluscum contagiosum was observed in a significant percentage of children. The total percentage of children afflicted by Molluscum contagiosum was found to be 24.32%., Conclusion: The higher incidence of Molluscum contagiosum in children residing in orphanages as compared to the normal population of the same age group was reflected in the higher incidence of DMFT/deft in orphanages as compared to the normal population.

Lower respiratory tract infections are major cause of morbidity and mortality. Objectives were to evaluate efficacy and safety of fixed dose combination (FDC) of Ceftazidime and Tobramycin in comparison with Ceftazidime alone in patients with lower respiratory tract infections. Patients (n=240) were randomly distributed in two arms: one arm was treated with Ceftazidime(1g)-Tobramycin(120mg) and other arm was treated with Ceftazidime (1g) alone. Patients were clinically, radiologically and bacteriologically evaluated. Clinically successful outcome was seen in 88.4% of the patients in Ceftazidime-Tobramycin treated group as compared to 61.2% in Ceftazidime alone treated group. In Ceftazidime-Tobramycin treated group, majority of pathogen isolated were H.inflenzae (35%), P. aeruginosa (24.16%), K. pneumoniae (16.66%) and M. catarrhalis (24.16%), whereas in Ceftazidime alone treated group majority of pathogen isolated were H.inflenzae (33.33%), P. aeruginosa (20%), K. pneumoniae (18.33%) and M. catarrhalis (28.33%). In Ceftazidime-Tobramycin treated group (98%), a significantly higher bacterial eradication was observed than Ceftazidime alone treated group (79%). Radiological improvement was also superior in Ceftazidime-Tobramycin treated group. No major adverse events were observed. Results showed that fixed dose combination of Ceftazidime Tobramycin is superior than Ceftazidime alone in the treatment of lower respiratory tract infections.

CD4 counting is the standard method for determining eligibility for antiretroviral therapy (ART) and HIV disease progression, but it is not widely available in developing countries. The aim of this study was to correlate the levels of beta-2 microglobulin and total lymphocyte count (TLC) with CD4 counts for monitoring disease progression and identify patients who require ART. The authors measured CD4 T-cell counts, TLC, and beta-2 microglobulin levels in 119 HIV seropositive patients. There was a significant negative correlation between CD4 counts and beta-2 microglobulin levels and significant positive correlation between TLC and CD4 counts. Taking a TLC cutoff of < or = 1600 and beta-2 microglobulin levels > or = 3.5 mg/l, the authors could identify 90.4% of patients with CD4 count < or = 200 cells/microl. These assays may allow reduction in the annual number of CD4 cell evaluation and the cost associated with monitoring the immune status of HIV-positive patients.

Chikungunya fever is an important arboviral infection prevalent throughout Africa and Southeast Asia. Recently, in 2006, it has reemerged in many parts of India, affecting more than a million persons. A detail serological, virological, and molecular investigation of this unprecedented outbreak was carried out by collecting and studying 540 samples from all the affected regions of India during this epidemic. An in-depth investigation revealed the presence of anti-Chikungunya antibodies in 68% of the samples and genomic RNA in 49% of them. In addition 32 Chikungunya viruses were isolated from 45 representative polymerase chain reaction-positive samples. The nucleotide sequences of partial E1 gene of 25 representative Chikungunya viruses were deciphered. The sequence analysis indicated that all the isolates of this epidemic belonged to the new Indian Ocean island clade of East Central South (ECS) African genotype. This study conclusively proved the genotype shift from Asian to ECS African as the major factor in the reemergence of Chikungunya in an unprecedented outbreak in India after a gap of 32 years.

Study was carried out in 100 patients of non-specific vaginitis (NSV) to find out the incidence of vaginitis due to G. vaginalis. Out of a total of 100 subjects 20 were positive for G. vaginalis as compared to only 6 in equal number of normal matched controls. One positive specimen showed concomitant presence of C. albicans and E. coli was found in another positive specimen. Presence of amines and clue cells in the discharge did not correlate with the isolation rate of G. vaginalis, thus emphasizing the necessity of culture to diagnose NSV due to G. vaginalis.