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The Himalaya is known for dramatically rugged landscapes including the highest mountains in the world. However, there is a limited understanding of the timing of attainment of high elevation and relief formation, especially in the Nepalese Himalaya. Anomalous high-elevation low-relief (HELR) surfaces, which exhibit geomorphic antiquity and are possibly remnants of formerly widespread high-elevation paleosurfaces, provide a unique opportunity to assess the attainment of regional high elevation in the Himalaya. The Bhumichula plateau is one such HELR surface (4300-4800 m) in the western Nepalese Himalayan fold-thrust belt. The Bhumichula plateau is situated in the Dadeldhura klippe (also called the Karnali klippe), an outlier of Greater Himalayan Sequence highgrade metasedimentary/igneous rocks surrounded by structurally underlying Lesser Himalayan Sequence low-grade metasedimentary rocks. We assess the origin of the Bhumichula plateau by combining regional geological relationships and zircon and apatite (U-Th-Sm)/He and apatite fission track thermochronologic ages. The HELR surface truncates pervasive west-southwestward dipping foliations, indicating that it post-dates tilting of rocks in the hanging wall of the Main Central thrust above the Lesser Himalayan duplex. This suggests that the surface originated at high elevation by erosional beveling of thickened, uplifted crust. Exhumation through the ~180-60 °C thermal window occurred during middle Miocene for samples on the plateau and between middle and late Miocene for rocks along the Tila River, which bounds the north flank of the Bhumichula plateau. Cooling ages along the Tila River are consistent with erosional exhumation generated by early Miocene emplacement of the Main Central (Dadeldhura) thrust sheet, middle Miocene Ramgarh thrust emplacement, and late Miocene growth of the Lesser Himalayan duplex. The most recent middle-late Miocene exhumation took place as the Tila River and its northward flowing tributaries incised upstream, such that the Bhumichula plateau is a remnant of a more extensive HELR paleolandscape. Alpine glaciation lowered relief on the Bhumichula surface, and surface preservation may owe to its relatively durable lithology, gentle structural relief, and elevation range that is above the rainier Lesser Himalaya. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Central Andean and Himalayan orogenic belts provide an ideal natural experiment to test the potential role of climate in controlling orogeny. Approximately equal in age and along-strike length, both orogenic wedges are forming in plate-marginal convergent tectonic settings: The Andes in a retroarc setting and the Himalaya in a collisional setting against the Tibetan backstop. The Central Andes orogenic wedge is volumetrically and aerially nearly two times larger than the Himalayan orogenic wedge, despite the Himalaya having accommodated two to three times more tectonic shortening. The Himalaya exports at least four times more sediment owing to much greater erosion rates as signified by widespread Cenozoic metamorphic rocks and very young (<10 Ma) low-temperature thermochronologic ages. The Central Andes are thermochronologically old (mostly >20 Ma), have no exposures of Cenozoic metamorphic rocks, and are mantled by volcanic and sedimentary rocks, attesting to shallow, slow erosion. We conclude that greater intensity of the Indian Monsoon relative to the South American Monsoon since Oligocene time accounts for the differences in orogen size and characteristics. When viewed as an orogenic wedge that has developed largely after formation of the Tibetan orogenic collage, the Himalaya is neither the largest nor hottest among Earth's orogens. • The Central Andean orogenic wedge is ∼2X the size of the Himalayan wedge despite the Himalaya having ∼ 2 − 3 X greater shortening. • More intense monsoonal climate allows Himalayan erosional flux to be at least four times greater than Central Andean flux. • Rapid erosion keeps Himalayan orogenic mass in check, while slow erosion allows the Central Andes to efficiently grow. • Fold-thrust orogens in arid climates should generally be larger than those in more erosive climates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thermobarometric estimates for Lesser and Greater Himalayan rocks combined with detailed structural mapping in the Modi Khola valley of central Nepal reveal that large displacement thrust-sense and normal-sense faults and ductile shear zones mostly control the spatial pattern of exposed metamorphic rocks. Individual shear zone- or fault-bounded domains contain rocks that record approximately the same peak metamorphic conditions and structurally higher thrust sheets carry higher grade rocks. This spatial pattern results from the kinematics of thrust-sense faults and shear zones, which usually place deeper, higher grade rocks on shallower, lower grade rocks. Lesser Himalayan rocks in the hanging wall of the Ramgarh thrust equilibrated at about 9 kbar and 580°C. There is a large increase in recorded pressures and temperatures across the Main Central thrust. Data presented here suggest the presence of a previously unrecognized normal fault entirely within Greater Himalayan strata, juxtaposing hanging wall rocks that equilibrated at about 11 kbar and 720°C against footwall rocks that equilibrated at about 15 kbar and 720°C. Normal faults occur at the structural top and within the Greater Himalayan series, as well as in Lesser Himalayan strata 175 and 1,900 m structurally below the base of the Greater Himalayan series. The major mineral assemblages in the samples collected from the Modi Khola valley record only one episode of metamorphism to the garnet zone or higher grades, although previously reported ca. 500 Ma concordant monazite inclusions in some Greater Himalayan garnets indicate pre-Cenozoic metamorphism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Five isotope-enhanced geologic transects in the southern Annapurna Range of central Nepal elucidate structural geometries near the Main Central thrust. Whole-rock Nd isotopes and U-Pb ages of detrital zircons unambiguously distinguish Greater Himalayan (hanging wall) and Lesser Himalayan (footwall) metasedimentary rocks. εNd(0) values for lower Lesser Himalayan rocks typically range from -20 to -26, whereas Greater Himalayan rocks usually have εNd(0) values of -19 to -12. Lower Lesser Himalayan rocks yield detrital zircon s with an age peak at ca. 1880 Ma and no detrital zircons younger than Ca. 1550 Ma. In contrast, Greater Himalayan rocks yield detrital zircons with a prominent broad peak of ages at ca. 1050 Ma and no detrital zircons younger than ca. 600 Ma. The protolith boundary between Greater and Lesser Himalayan rocks is up to 1 km farther south than usually mapped on the basis of lithology. Field and microstructural observations indicate the presence of a top-to-the-south ductile shear zone superimposed on this boundary, confirming this shear zone as the Main Central thrust. No evidence exists for large-scale structural mixing of Greater and Lesser Himalayan rocks along the Main Central thrust in the Annapurna Range. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In order to advance our understanding of the suturing process between continental landmasses, a geologic and geochronologic investigation was undertaken just south of the India–Asia suture in southwestern Tibet. The focus of this study, the Xiao Gurla Range, is located near the southeastern terminus of the active, right-lateral strike-slip Karakoram fault in southwestern Tibet. The range exposes metasandstone, phyllite, schist (locally of sillimanite facies), calc-gneiss and marble, paragneiss (± pyroxene), quartzite, metagranite, and variably deformed leucogranite. These metamorphic rocks are exposed in the footwall of a domal, top-to-the-west low-angle normal (detachment) fault, structurally beneath Neogene–Quaternary basin fill and serpentinized ultramafic rocks of the Kiogar-Jungbwa ophiolite. The detachment is interpreted to be the northeastern continuation of the Gurla Mandhata detachment fault system that bounds metamorphic rocks of the Gurla Mandhata Range ~60km to the southwest. U–Pb geochronology on five detrital zircon samples of schist, phyllite, and quartzite yielded maximum depositional ages that range from 644–363Ma and age probability distributions that are more similar to Tethyan sequence rocks than Lesser Himalayan sequence rocks. A felsic gneiss yielded a metamorphic zircon age of 35.3±0.8Ma with a significant population of early Paleozoic xenocrystic core ages. The gneiss is interpreted to be the metamorphosed equivalent of the Cambro-Ordovician gneiss that is exposed near the top of the Greater Himalayan sequence. Leucogranitic bodies intruding metasedimentary footwall rocks yielded two distinct U–Pb zircon ages of ~23Ma and ~15Ma. Locally, rocks exposed in the hanging wall of this fault and of the southward-dipping, northward-verging Great Counter thrust to the north consist of serpentinite-bearing mélange and conglomerate of inferred Paleogene age dominated by carbonate clasts. The mélange is intruded by a 44Ma granite and the stratigraphically highest conglomerate unit yielded detrital zircon U–Pb ages similar to Tethyan sequence rocks. We attribute the middle Eocene magmatism south of the suture to break-off of the Neo-Tethyan oceanic slab. In addition, our observations are consistent with the late Eocene shortening and crustal thickening within the Tethyan Himalayan sequence, early-middle Miocene leucogranite emplacement being related to underthrusting and melting of the Greater and possibly Lesser Himalayan sequences, and late Miocene arc-parallel extension in the hinterland of the southward propagating Himalayan thrust belt. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

We studied the water chemistry of two large and geologically differing Himalayan watersheds in order to maximize the contrast between silicate versus carbonate weathering effects on river chemistry. Our previous research involved the Seti River of westernmost Nepal, geologically typical of many rivers in Nepal in draining mixed carbonate/silicate lithologies, including abundant carbonate rocks of the Lesser Himalayan Sequence. For comparison, the Arun River was chosen for study because south of the Himalayan front it drains almost exclusively Greater and Lesser Himalayan silicate rocks. Despite this dominance of silicate rocks, carbonate weathering—probably of metamorphic calcite in Great Himalayan paragneisses—is clearly in evidence in many Arun watersheds. Weathering of silicate rocks exposed all along the Arun south of the range front has a small impact on mainstem river chemistry. The mainstems of both the Seti and Arun systems are dominated by weathering of carbonate rocks, although the contribution of silicate weathering is more visible in Arun mainstem chemistry. The carbonate weathering source to the Arun mainstem is probably both limestone in the Tethyan Sequence widely exposed in northern headwaters of the system, and metamorphic calcite within the Greater Himalayan Sequence.A number of small watersheds along the Arun and Seti appear to be carbonate-free. They probably provide the best constraints to date on the Ca/Na and Mg/Na ratios of waters draining Himalayan silicate rocks, two critical parameters for calculation of CO2 consumption by silicate weathering in the Himalaya. The observed Ca/Na and Mg/Na ratios would produce slightly higher estimates of silicate weathering fluxes than previous studies.The geologic contrasts between the Seti and the Arun produce large differences in the 87Sr/86Sr ratio of each mainstem, unlike the major element chemistry. The Seti mainstem displays much higher 87Sr/86Sr ratios than the Arun mainstem, the opposite of the expected relationship since radiogenic silicate rocks of the Greater and Lesser Himalaya are so widely exposed along the Arun. 87Sr/86Sr ratios of the Arun mainstem never exceed 0.734 and show little downstream change as the mainstem passes through silicate rocks of the Greater and Lesser Himalaya. 87Sr/86Sr ratios of the Seti mainstem increase sharply from 0.725 to 0.785 when the river enters the belt of metacarbonate rocks of the northern Lesser Himalayan Sequence, a pattern also displayed by other Himalayan rivers such as the Kali Gandaki and Bhotse Khola. Metacarbonate rocks, including those of the Lesser Himalaya, are a major source of radiogenic Sr in modern Himalayan Rivers and probably have been key players in elevating marine 87Sr/86Sr ratios since the Early Miocene. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]