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The present paper aims to explore the topic of the vocation of a courtesan in the 19th-century France, by analyzing memoirs of tree demi-mondaines of the time: Céleste Mogador, Cora Pearl and Rigolboche. Does such a vocation exist? If yes, how can we define this notion? The first part tries to show that prostitution isn't chosen by women because of the their inclination to debauchery, but is the result of the failed education and parental abandonment. The second part focuses on the importance of independence in the courtesan's life, as a part of their vocation, and the manner to gain it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Annales Historiques de la Révolution Française is the property of Librairie Armand Colin and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In France the Falloux Law of 1850 set out the distinction between state-run public schools and écoles libres maintained by individuals or associations. This article argues that Catholic nobles' historic property-based and charitable ties with rural communities underpinned their foundation of écoles libres. Drawing upon the private archives of noble families, the article shows how networking between aristocratic laity and religious orders facilitated the running of these schools. Nobles' determination to guard a reputation for charitable patronage, especially in the locality of their landed estate, meant they were impelled to invest fi nancially in écoles libres when doing so made no practical sense. From 1879 successive governments of the Third Republic introduced secularizing legislation that clashed with the aims of Catholic school founders. Even when taken to court for breaking republican laws, nobles, nuns, and monks remained passionately committed to upholding the culture of Christian faith within education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Estudios Románicos is the property of Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Murcia and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The article discusses French philosopher, mathematician, and political scientist, Nicolas de Condorcet's theory about liberty and property. The author compares Condorcet's ideas with British philosopher John Locke's, and explains that, according to Condorcet, property protection is essential to a society, while Locke claims that liberties' defense is more important. It is noted that Condorcet was recognized as a human rights activist, however his theory about property considers men, as beings able to have material properties, before being citizens.