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The most diverse and species-rich class of the phylum Porifera is Demospongiae. In recent years, the systematics of this clade, which contains more than 7000 species, has developed rapidly in light of new studies combining molecular and morphological observations. We add more than 500 new, nearly complete 18S sequences (an increase of more than 200%) in an attempt to further enhance understanding of the phylogeny of Demospongiae. Our study specifically targets representation of type species and genera that have never been sampled for any molecular data in an effort to accelerate progress in classifying this diverse lineage. Our analyses recover four highly supported subclasses of Demospongiae: Keratosa, Myxospongiae, Haploscleromorpha, and Heteroscleromorpha. Within Keratosa, neither Dendroceratida, nor its two families, Darwinellidae and Dictyodendrillidae, are monophyletic and Dictyoceratida is divided into two lineages, one predominantly composed of Dysideidae and the second containing the remaining families (Irciniidae, Spongiidae, Thorectidae, and Verticillitidae). Within Myxospongiae, we find Chondrosida to be paraphyletic with respect to the Verongida. We amend the latter to include species of the genus Chondrosia and erect a new order Chondrillida to contain remaining taxa from Chondrosida, which we now discard. Even with increased taxon sampling of Haploscleromorpha, our analyses are consistent with previous studies; however, Haliclona species are interspersed in even more clades. Haploscleromorpha contains five highly supported clades, each more diverse than previously recognized, and current families are mostly polyphyletic. In addition, we reassign Janulum spinispiculum to Haploscleromorpha and resurrect Reniera filholi as Janulum filholi comb. nov. Within the large clade Heteroscleromorpha, we confirmed 12 recently identified clades based on alternative data, as well as a sister-group relationship between the freshwater Spongillida and the family Vetulinidae. We transfer Stylissa flabelliformis to the genus Scopalina within the family Scopalinidae, which is of uncertain position. Our analyses uncover a large, strongly supported clade containing all heteroscleromorphs other than Spongillida, Vetulinidae, and Scopalinidae. Within this clade, there is a major division separating Axinellidae, Biemnida, Tetractinellida, Bubaridae, Stelligeridae, Raspailiidae, and some species of Petromica, Topsentia, and Axinyssa from Agelasida, Polymastiidae, Placospongiidae, Clionaidae, Spirastrellidae, Tethyidae, Poecilosclerida, Halichondriidae, Suberitidae, and Trachycladus. Among numerous results: (1) Spirophorina and its family Tetillidae are paraphyletic with respect to a strongly supported Astrophorina within Tetractinellida; (2) Agelasida is the earliest diverging lineage within the second clade listed above; and (3) Merlia and Desmacella appear to be the earliest diverging lineages of Poecilosclerida.

This study investigated infant neurobehavioral functioning during the newborn period in 334 full-term, African American neonates (187 cocaine exposed, 147 non-cocaine exposed) enrolled prospectively at birth, with documentation of drug exposure status through maternal interview and urine and meconium toxicology assays. Infants were assessed using the Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (BNBAS) during the newborn period (0-6 postnatal days). Findings from multivariate profile analyses support a consistent, modest effect of prenatal cocaine exposure on neurobehavioral functioning in full-term neonates. All of the BNBAS cluster scores, with the exception of abnormal reflexes, were similarly affected, sharing a common slope (D=-0.14; 95% CI=-0.27, -0.003; P=.046) representing a -0.14 point difference between cocaine-exposed and non-cocaine-exposed infants after controlling for prenatal exposure to alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana (ATM); maternal age, education, employment, primigravida status, and prenatal care visits; and infant sex and postnatal age in days. Fetal growth was also related to neurobehavioral functioning and, in part, mediated the relationship between cocaine exposure and the BNBAS cluster scores. Cocaine exposure during each trimester similarly influenced infant neurobehavioral profiles, with cocaine-associated deficits most pronounced in infants with exposure in all three trimesters. Results from qualitative and quantitative urine and meconium bioassay indicators further substantiated these results. Findings, while significant, represent modest effect sizes in full-term infants.

The present study estimates the longitudinal effects of prenatal cocaine exposure on indicators of sustained attention processing at 3, 5 and 7 years of age in an urban sample of full-term African-American children (235 cocaine-exposed, 207 noncocaine-exposed). The sample was enrolled prospectively at birth, with documentation of prenatal drug exposure status through maternal interview, urine and meconium toxicology assays. Sustained attention was measured at age 3 years using a standardized measure of task persistence during a challenging task [G.A. Morgan, N.A. Busch-Rossnagel, C.A. Maslin-Cole and R.J. Harmon, Individualized Assessment of Mastery Motivation: Manual for 15-36 Month Old Children, 1992.], and at ages 5 and 7 years using omission error scores from computerized continuous performance tasks (CPT) [L. Greenberg, R. Leark, T. Dupuy, C. Corman, C. Kindschi, M. Cenedela, Test of Variables of Attention (T.O.V.A. and T.O.V.A.-A.), 22, Universal Attention Disorders, Los Alamitos, CA, 1996; C.K. Conners, Conners' Continuous Performance Test (CPT), second ed., Multi-Health Systems, Canada, 1995.]. Findings from longitudinal GLM/GEE analyses of the three measured time points support a stable influence of prenatal cocaine exposure on indicators of sustained attention, after controlling for prenatal exposure to alcohol, marijuana, tobacco and over 20 additional medical and social-demographic covariates drawn from potentially confounding influences assessed at birth and later assessment visits (D=0.21; 95% CI=0.04, 0.38; P=.017). This effect was not mediated by fetal growth or gestational age and remained highly stable with increasing levels of covariate control. Separately, using the age 7 data, a structural equations model (SEM) was constructed combining all available self-report and bioassay data to measure magnitude of cocaine exposure in relationship to attention task performance. Results indicated a gradient of influence, with each standard deviation increase in the level of prenatal cocaine exposure relating to a 16% standard deviation increase in omission error scores at age 7. Overall findings support a stable cocaine-specific effect on indicators of sustained attention processing during the early childhood years. Results are discussed within the context of neurobiological and behavioral research linking prenatal cocaine exposure to long-lasting disruption of the brain systems subserving arousal and attention.

Objective: This study documents delays in the mental and motor functioning of infants perinatally infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) while controlling for confounding effects of prenatal drug exposure, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and maternal separation and death., Methods: The cognitive and motor development of 126 infants born to nondrug-using, HIV-seropositive Haitian women was assessed at 3-month intervals through 24 months of age using the Bayley Scales of Infant Development. By 18 months of age, 28 of the infants were diagnosed as HIV-infected, and the 98 uninfected infants served as a control group. The infected and uninfected infants did not differ with respect to mean gestational age, birth weight, ethnicity, or rates of maternal separation and death., Results: By 3 months of age, the mean mental and motor scores of the infected infants were significantly lower than those of the uninfected controls. Furthermore, the initial differences between the two groups increased over time, as many of the infected infants became increasingly delayed. Although the infected infants tended to perform more poorly than the uninfected infants, nearly one third of the infected infants exhibited relatively normal cognitive development and half demonstrated relatively normal motor development., Conclusions: Over the first 24 months of life, the mean rate of development of HIV-infected infants is significantly slower than that of noninfected infants born to seropositive mothers. This occurs even when the effects are not confounded with those of prenatal drug exposure.

Recent federal health financing and health care delivery programs have increased access to alcohol and other drug abuse treatment programs for low-income women, and have provided intervention and prevention services for their children and families. The Village South Families in Transition (FIT) in Miami, Florida, implemented a residential treatment program for women and their children that aims to decrease alcohol and other drug use, reduce reliance on social and health welfare systems, improve functioning in specific life-skill and vocational areas, improve parenting techniques and maternal/child relations, and provide intervention and prevention services for the clients' children in a safe and supportive environment. Program implementation required resolutions to numerous barriers, including securing a facility for women and children; recruiting, hiring and training of staff; establishing and maintaining community linkages; treatment considerations; balancing treatment versus evaluation/research; and critical decisions faced by treatment staff as they modify client-centered programs to incorporate gender-specific and family-centered programs.