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This study demonstrates how an evolving negative educational gradient of single parenthood can interact with changing labour market conditions to shape labour market inequalities between partnered and single parents. We analysed trends in employment rates among Finnish partnered and single mothers and fathers from 1987 to 2018. In the late 1980s' Finland, single mothers' employment was internationally high and on par with that of partnered mothers, and single fathers' employment rate was just below that of partnered fathers. The gaps between single and partnered parents emerged and increased during the 1990s recession, and after the 2008 economic crisis, it widened further. In 2018, the employment rates of single parents were 11--12 percentage points lower than those of partnered parents. We ask how much of this single-parent employment gap could be explained by compositional factors, and the widening educational gradient of single parenthood in particular. We use Chevan and Sutherland's decomposition technique on register data, which allows us to decompose the single-parent employment gap into the composition and rate effects by each category of the background variables. The findings point to an increasing double disadvantage of single parents: the gradually evolving disadvantage in educational backgrounds together with large differences in employment rates between single and partnered parents with low education explain large parts of the widening employment gap. Sociodemographic changes in interaction with changes in the labour market can produce inequalities by family structure in a Nordic society known for its extensive support for combining childcare and employment for all parents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND Previous research on fertility has focused on women, and less attention has been paid to men and couples. OBJECTIVE The aim of this study is to examine how the socioeconomic resources of cohabiting and married partners affect entry into parenthood in a relatively gender-egalitarian welfare society. METHOD The study is based on Finnish register data and uses event-history analysis to predict first births from both partners' socioeconomic characteristics. RESULTS The results show that each partner being employed (as opposed to studying) and having a higher income seems to encourage entry into parenthood. As compared to employed couples, either partner being currently unemployed or having recent spells of unemployment had very weak effects, whereas either partner being economically inactive seems to discourage childbearing. Although the resources of male partners also have an effect, the female partner's situation appears to be equally or even more influential. The effects of female partners' characteristics are almost as great when male characteristics are controlled as when they are not, and women's and men's characteristics do not interact with each other. Moreover, with regard to income and educational attainment beyond age 30, for example, the woman's resources have a stronger positive effect than the resources of the male partner. CONCLUSIONS Together with several previous studies from the Nordic countries, this study lends support to the idea that the influence of women's and men's economic resources on family formation are perhaps much more symmetrical than conventional theories suggest. COMMENTS The significance of women's own resources, net of the male partner's resources, suggests that previous studies have not overestimated their positive impact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates how unemployment is associated with the transition to parenthood among men and women in times of increased instability in the labour market. We provide novel insights into how education and life stage might modify the link between unemployment and fertility. We focus on a Nordic welfare state, Finland, and apply event history models to a rich register sample covering the years 1988--2009 (N=306,413). We find that unemployment or a weaker labour market attachment tends to delay parenthood among both men and women, but the association is stronger for men. In most groups, the accumulation of unemployment periods is associated with a lower rate of entry into parenthood. However, among young, low-educated women, even long-term or recurring unemployment seems to promote first childbearing, and the generally negative association between unemployment and entry into parenthood does not apply to young, low-educated men. The effect of unemployment is largely mediated by the low income of unemployed persons. Overall, our findings suggest that in a modern, gender-egalitarian welfare society, better employment prospects promote transition to parenthood in a very similar fashion among men and women, but the effects are strongly modified by education and life course stage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The relationship between socioeconomic resources and family formation is a central theme in family demography. Much research has focused on how employment or an individual's labour market position are related to fertility choices, largely focusing on women, among whom the possibility to reconcile paid employment with parenthood is expected to be the key to high fertility. Recent developments in the labour market and economies, and continued postponement of first birth in many low-fertility countries have spurred research on how uncertainties related to individual labour market integration affect transition to parenthood, with increased attention to men's employment opportunities and their fertility choices. Despite macro-level studies pointing to strong associations between economic downturns, high unemployment, and low fertility, empirical evidence on the significance of stable employment on men's and women's childbearing remains mixed, and findings vary by country context. This thesis consists of four substudies, which broadly examine the link between socioeconomic resources and family dynamics. The first objective was to investigate how various indicators of individuals' socioeconomic resources, especially employment and labour market attachment, are related to entry into parenthood among young adults in Finland, and whether these associations differ between men and women. As the impact of an individual's socioeconomic resources on fertility may partly operate via union formation, their role in the entry into parenthood were analysed in individuals, and in a couple context. Second, the study aimed to examine whether gender equality at home and men's increased participation in unpaid domestic work is related to continued childbearing in couples, as predicted by the gender equity perspectives. Finally, the objective of the fourth substudy was to investigate the consequences of growing educational disparities in single parenthood for labour market inequalities between partnered and single parents. Three substudies in this thesis were based on longitudinal population register datasets, compiled by Statistics Finland. Studies on the role of socioeconomic factors in the entry into parenthood were based on 11-per-cent samples of the Finnish population, the first covering men and women born in Finland during 1948--1992, and the second covering marital and cohabiting unions formed between 1988 and 2003. Piecewise exponential models were applied to study associations between educational attainment, employment, income, and transition to first birth among individuals, and in couples. The substudy investigating the relationship between domestic gender equality and couples' childbearing used Time Use Survey 1999--2000 data (collected by Statistics Finland), combined with register data on subsequent childbearing. The association between educational qualifications and economic activity with information on individuals' family type and family status. Decomposition analysis was used to extract the role of educational divide in single parenthood in accounting for the single-parent employment gap. The results suggest that employment stability is a key prerequisite for family formation among young adults in contemporary Finland. Being unemployed decreased the likelihood of entering parenthood, particularly if unemployment turned out to be long-standing or recurring. To large extent, the negative association between joblessness and transition to parenthood was related to low income level resulting from unemployment. However, investigating population sub-groups demonstrated that among lower-educated young adults, entry into parenthood was not hampered by financial constraints or unemployment. In all other education and age groups, unemployment or inactivity was consistently negatively associated with transition to parenthood. The negative consequences of weak labour market attachment on first childbearing were particularly strong in age groups above 30 years. Among these older individuals, we also found large educational differences in transition to first birth pointing to disadvantages in family formation processes, which are only partly attributable to differences in employment status or income levels. Further analyses in couples did not change these associations -- rather, they revealed that while greater resources also promoted childbearing through fostering union formation, each partner's resources continued to positively affect entry into parenthood in couples. These results suggest polarization of childbearing: those with the fewest resources enter parenthood earlier than others, and those with high employment prospects wait until securing their foothold in the labour market, thus ensuring better financial resources for their families. We also found remarkable similarities in how stability in employment and greater economic resources promoted entry into parenthood among men and women. In couples, the effects of female partners' resources were even stronger than those of the male partners, indicating that in Nordic welfare societies, institutions and norms that support gender equality in employment and in the ability to maintain a family are advantageous to childbearing. However, gender equality in the domestic sphere in terms of men's increased participation in unpaid housework proved to have negligible impact on couples' childbearing. Since the early 1990s, the employment rates among single mothers and single fathers have been considerably lower than those of coupled parents in finland, contributing to higher poverty rates among single parent households. single parenthood is increasingly concentrated in the lowest-educated groups, especially among mothers but also (at lower levels) among fathers. the fourth substudy demonstrated that the role of educational disparities in single parenthood in accounting for the employment gap has increased over time, particularly among mothers after the 2008 recession. instead of basic-level educated single parents study showed that obstacles to employment among single parents appeared to operate, at least partly, irrespective of the gender of the parent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The proportion of total parental leave days taken by fathers has increased in all Nordic countries almost hand in hand with parental leave reforms. However, the average pattern of fathers' parental leave uptake hides the fact that a considerable proportion of fathers use no parental leave, even when they are earmarked for the father. In this study, we focus on the proportion and characteristics of non-users, that is, fathers who do not use parental leave. We distinguish two non-user groups: fathers who use no parental leave, not even birth-related leave and fathers who do not use the father's quota. This distinction is relevant because it reflects the design and institutional status of fathers' parental leave. Further, factors related to using no parental leave are likely to be somewhat different to those related to not using the father's quota. In Finland, the father's quota was introduced in 2003, but it became fully independent leave for the father only in 2013. We also investigate if the 2013 reform was followed by any changes in fathers' parental leave use and in the profiles of non-users. We use a unique longitudinal register data that covers practically (fathers to) all children born in 2010–2015 and follow parental leave use until 2018. We find that the 2013 reform was followed by a considerable increase in the uptake of the father's quota. The proportion of fathers who used no parental leave remained stable, but the reform encouraged some fathers to take longer, independent leave in addition to the birth-related leave. Overall, less educated and low-income fathers were less likely to use any parental leave, and if they took leave, they were more likely to use only the birth-related leave. However, the 2013 reform slightly diminished socioeconomic disparities in the use of the father's quota. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Birth intervals are a crucial component of fertility behaviour and family planning. Short birth intervals are associated—although not necessarily causally—with negative health-related outcomes, but less is known about their associations with family functioning. Here, the associations between birth intervals and marital stability were investigated by Cox regression using a nationally representative, register-based sample of individuals with two (N = 42,481) or three (N = 22,514) children from contemporary Finland (observation period 1972–2009). Shorter interbirth intervals were associated with an increased risk of parental divorce over a ten-year follow-up. Individuals with birth intervals of up to 1.5 years had 24–49 per cent higher divorce risk compared to individuals whose children were born more than 4 years apart. The pattern was similar in all socioeconomic groups and among individuals with earlier and later entry to parenthood. Our results add to the growing body of research showing associations between short birth intervals and negative outcomes in health and family functioning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We compared the reasons for postponing first birth in the three neighbouring areas of St Petersburg (Russia), Estonia and Finland. Data from three population-based surveys among women aged 18-44 years in St Petersburg (response rate 67%); Estonia (54%) and Finland (63%) in the early 2000s were used and analysed with logistic regressions. Childbearing intentions and reasons for postponing parenthood differed between both study areas and age groups. The proportion of women aged 35-44 still planning to have children was highest in Estonia. In the two post-Soviet areas, job insecurity increased postponement intentions among women aged 18-34 years. Enrolment in education was an important reason for postponement among women below 35 years in Estonia and aged 25-34 years in St Petersburg. In Finland, poor economic situation in the youngest age group and desire to advance a career among all women were important reasons to postpone birth. The importance of prolonged education and job insecurity for the timing of births in St Petersburg and Estonia suggests that governments should improve family policy measures to encourage childbearing among the young. In Finland policies to support the reconciliation of family and career and to increase permanent employment could promote parenthood among well-educated women. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article studies variation in regional sex ratios in Finland and outlines potential implications of the skewed sex ratios for family formation patterns. Difficulties in finding a suitable partner are typically mentioned as one of the most important reasons for remaining childless, and we explore if this reason is apparent structurally at the regional macro level. We found significant variation in sex ratios in age-groups 18-30 at the regional and sub-regional levels. Of the whole 20-29-year old population in Finland, almost 50 percent live in sub-region areas with a male surplus. As expected, a higher proportion of men compared to women appears to increase fertility of women in younger age groups. Contrary to expectations, high male-female ratios were not related to higher proportion of women living with a partner. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND Previous research on fertility has focused on women, and less attention has been paid to men and couples. OBJECTIVE The aim of this study is to examine how the socioeconomic resources of cohabiting and married partners affect entry into parenthood in a relatively gender-egalitarian welfare society. METHOD The study is based on Finnish register data and uses event-history analysis to predict first births from both partners' socioeconomic characteristics. RESULTS The results show that each partner being employed (as opposed to studying) and having a higher income seems to encourage entry into parenthood. As compared to employed couples, either partner being currently unemployed or having recent spells of unemployment had very weak effects, whereas either partner being economically inactive seems to discourage childbearing. Although the resources of male partners also have an effect, the female partner's situation appears to be equally or even more influential. The effects of female partners' characteristics are almost as great when male characteristics are controlled as when they are not, and women's and men's characteristics do not interact with each other. Moreover, with regard to income and educational attainment beyond age 30, for example, the woman's resources have a stronger positive effect than the resources of the male partner. CONCLUSIONS Together with several previous studies from the Nordic countries, this study lends support to the idea that the influence of women's and men's economic resources on family formation are perhaps much more symmetrical than conventional theories suggest. COMMENTS The significance of women's own resources, net of the male partner's resources, suggests that previous studies have not overestimated their positive impact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The section presents charts of population data on Finland from 1900 to 2010, including the age structure, the fertility rate and live births.

Stimulated by the recent debate on gender roles and men's fertility behaviour (Puur et al. 2008; Westoff and Higgins 2009; Goldscheider, Oláh and Puur 2010), we present evidence from Finland as a country well into the second phase of the so-called gender revolution. We examine how gender role attitudes relate to childbearing intentions at the onset of family life, intentions to have many (3 or more) children, and high personal fertility ideals among low-parity men and women. Gender equality attitudes are measured for both the public and the domestic sphere and the influence of work and family orientation is controlled for. Finding signs of a U-shaped association among men, we conclude that both traditional and egalitarian attitudes raise men's expected fertility compared to men with intermediate gender attitudes and independently of family values. Among Finnish women the impact of gender attitudes is smaller and more ambiguous. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presents several charts on the population data in Finland from 1900 to 2004. Age-specific fertility rate; Gross and net reproduction rate; Illegitimate live births.

In this paper we examine reproductive intentions among childless Finnish men and women aged 18 to 34 years. In Finland, as in other European countries, young adults are postponing parenthood to an ever-later age. Our intention is to investigate expressions of reproductive intentions, and particularly, to focus on the division of intentions between more positive and more hesitant expressions. We examine how education, factors related to economic security and values relate to childbearing hesitation among young adults. We also use information on the reasons that the young themselves have provided to examine differences infertility intentions. Our study uses a sample of 724 men and women drawn from the PPA2 survey, which focused on Finns' attitudes in 2002 toward family and children, family policy measures, values in life, and fertility intentions. We find that education is related to postponement, and that unemployment increases hesitation. Partnership and the state of the relationship are clearly important preconditions for positive childbearing intentions among both men and women. Postponers are more likely to stress reasons that are related to present life situation and are more open to change, while persons who hesitate regarding future childbearing stress longer-standing reasons behind their intentions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presents data about the population of Finland from 1900-2003. Gross and net reproduction rate; Illegitimate live births; Abortions.

Presents information on population in Finland from 1900 to 2002. Fertility rate in the state; Recorded number of abortions; Average number of divorce cases.

Examines the association of personal values and attitudes with childbearing intentions in Finland. Discussion on fertility behavior; Independent factors behind fertility intentions; List of values used in the study.

• Child support orders are less likely in shared care in both Finland and Wisconsin. • Expense sharing is more prevalent in shared care than sole care. • In Finland, child support receipt reduces the likelihood of expense sharing. • Equal shared care exhibits the highest frequency of expense sharing. This study analyzes the associations between post-separation child living arrangements and child support outcomes and expense sharing in two contrasting welfare states: Finland and the United States (Wisconsin). The extent to which parents share the economic responsibility of the child after separation varies across countries. As shared care arrangements become more prevalent, traditional child support arrangements may become less common. Survey data collected in Finland (2019) and Wisconsin (2020) from separated or divorced parents are utilized in this study, and standard logistic and OLS regression models are used to investigate the relationship between sole and shared care arrangements and child support outcomes and expense sharing. The findings demonstrate that shared care arrangements are associated with a reduced likelihood of having a formal child support order and an increased likelihood of sharing child-related expenses in Finland and Wisconsin. Thus, shared care arrangements are linked to a decrease in formal child support orders and an increase in expense sharing. The results indicate a reduced reliance on formal child support orders and an increased willingness to privately share child-related expenses; findings reflect changing societal practices regarding the economic aspects of child rearing in separated or divorced families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]