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As the learning needs of adults grow in the workplace and society, there is a need to understand the specificities of adult learning and how to support and guide adult learning at work. This article explores the applicability of andragogical theory to learning at work. The research seeks answers to the following question: What are the (individual and social) andragogical features behind learning at work? Two organisations -- Finnish police and a technology organisation - participated in this study. Thematic interviews (n = 54) were analysed using thematic analysis. The findings showed that all the assumptions of andragogy were reflected in the data, but a substantial overlap existed in workplace learning situations. We identified three main themes describing the key andragogical features behind learning at work: benefit orientation, self-direction and experientiality. All the described key features showed both individual and social dimensions. The article presents these features in relation to different learning situations at work, as well, as showing the contributions of the study for andragogical theory.

Adult's self-direction and self-directed learning (SDL) have become topics in the discussion of work-related adult learning and an autonomous approach, emphasizing responsibility and independence, has received increasing attention in studies of learning. In the context of SDL, in contrast, the importance of the learning environment and community has received less empirical attention. The aim of this article is to increase the understanding of the co-occurrence of sociocultural elements and self-direction in learning situations at work. From a practical viewpoint, it is important to understand both, the sociocultural and self-directed nature of different learning situations at daily work, so that organizations and workplaces can develop the practices that support learning and self-directedness in the work environment and create appropriate expectations for individual self-direction. In this study, we examined the elements of sociocultural learning and self-direction in police organization. The content analysis focused on interviews with 26 police officers, examining their descriptions of learning situations. The findings show that in learning situations at work, individual responsibility alternates with collectivity, peers, supportive supervisory work, and tools. The theoretical and practical implications of the findings are highlighted.

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to identify the challenges of low hierarchy and self-organised structures for employees' learning and competency development at work. In the past decade, interest in employees' and organisations' self-directedness has increased. Self-organised structures are perceived as better able to answer to the quickly changing requirements of clients and business environments. Within these structures, employees are expected to take on more responsibility and maintain more control over their workplace learning, which means they must be self-directed and autonomous. An important question for this approach is how can workplace learning and employee competence development be enhanced. Design/methodology/approach: Two self-organised Finnish information and communication technology-companies participated in the study. With the help of data-driven content analysis, 36 interviews were analysed. Findings: Unclear roles, structures and areas of responsibility caused challenges during the guidance and support of learning, for long-term and sustainable professional development possibilities and in organising and prioritizing work tasks related to learning. Practical implications: In self-organised structures, there should be a means of the better supporting individual- and team-based learning. This will allow learning to have as much value as possible in the future and, therefore, be more sustainable. The findings are also important to be taken into account in managers' and HR professionals' education and training. Originality/value: The findings of this study can offer insights into employees' well-being emerging from the possibility to learn and be supported in that learning especially in self-organised structures, which so far has been scarcely studied.

Rapid changes in working life have raised awareness of the need for lifelong learning among personnel, and there is increasing concern regarding the sustainability of such learning, especially in growth companies, where learning can be seen as a prerequisite for many work practices. Hence, the aim of this study is to understand the sustainability of learning situations from the perspectives of individual wellbeing, widespread use of previous knowledge and rapid application of new knowledge. We broaden the understanding of workplace learning from the perspective of sustainability by identifying different workplace learning situations and outlining the sustainability of these situations. Two Finnish growth companies participated in the study, representing the technology and industrial field. The data consist of 68 interviews, and a qualitative thematic analysis was utilised. The study found three thematic categories of learning situations: technological development, structural changes within the organisation and formal learning situations. Sustainability perspectives manifested in these situations, but both negative and positive aspects of learning were observed. The findings can be utilised in organisations to enable more sustainability in learning. The research reveals a new and critical understanding of the sustainability of workplace learning.

Health care organizations are facing rapid changes, frequently involving modification of existing procedures. The case study reported here examined change processes and learning in a health care organization. The organizational change in question occurred in the emergency clinic of a Finnish central hospital where a new action model for shift-specific nursing supervision was being introduced. The aim of this study was to investigate some of the employee participation and learning opportunities amid this organizational change. The data collection was ethnographically informed, and the data consisted of audio-recorded and observed meetings, observations of the new action model, and field interviews which were analyzed qualitatively. The change appeared to occur in four phases: preparation, planning, discussion, and implementation. Structures (e.g. regular meetings open to the entire staff) and practices (e.g. open discussion) facilitating participation in the phases of the change were prerequisites for participation by individual employees, but participation was not made structurally possible throughout the change. The study confirmed the importance of participation for learning within change. In the change, participation in the form of identity work denoted individual-level learning opportunities, and participation in the form of suggestions for new practices and expression of problems facilitated organization-level learning opportunities. In this study, participation manifested itself as a more multifaceted phenomenon than in previous studies. This study provided new knowledge on employee participation and its manifestations in micro-level interaction, as well as on both individual-level and organization-level learning opportunities in organizational change.

This paper summarises the findings of a research project on interprofessional collaboration in the emergency unit of a major Finnish hospital. The findings are discussed through a broad conceptual framework which involves work process knowledge and interprofessional collaboration. The project, carried out from 2010-2012, investigated different forms of, prerequisites for, and barriers to, collaboration, and the aim was to develop the work together with staff at the unit. An ethnographically informed research strategy was utilised, with observations and interviews as the main data collection methods. On the whole, collaboration in the emergency unit was found to function rather well; i.e. patients receive good-quality treatment within the ideal time frame. We found that in the unit, the most suitable form for the majority of collaborations is multi-professional collaboration, in which professionals exchange information but still adhere strongly to their own professional groups. More interprofessional collaboration is required particularly in leadership and management, to create further improvements in (1) the coordination of work as a whole, and (2) the implementation of organisational changes and new professional roles. Obstacles to interprofessional collaboration in particular appear to be: (1) diverging professional values and core professional identities, and (2) power relations that create inequality.

In the paper we aim to identify various ways of interprofessional collaboration and learning in an emergency unit at a hospital in Finland. According to previous studies, health care work faces various constraints which also challenge interprofessional interaction and learning. We ask what kinds of learning situations and challenges are manifested in moments of interprofessional practice. Ethnography was applied as a methodological approach. Empirical data were collected with the help of observations, audio taping, individual and focus group interviews, and suitable qualitative methods were utilised in the analysis. It was found that multi- and interprofessional collaboration and learning was present in many ways in emergency practice, for instance, in mutual planning of patient care and in situations where specific patient groups were treated. However, collaboration and learning were also challenged in these situations. Although collaborative practice was mostly fluent, coordination between professions need to be developed more collaboratively to promote learning and shared understanding among all employees. (Contains 1 figure and 1 table.)

Hospitals, and surgical operating theatres (OTs) in particular, are environments in which inter-professional teamwork and learning are essential to secure patient safety and effective practice. However, it has been revealed in many studies that inter-professional collaborative work in hospital organisations faces many challenges and constraints. In this study we examine surgical operations as participatory practices from the perspective of inter-professional learning and cooperation. We ask what kinds of shared practices enable learning and collaboration within the surgical operating team. We used an ethnographic approach to data collection including observations and interviews of surgical residents and nursing staff. Observations were conducted in the OTs of one non-academic hospital in Finland in 2007. The transcripts and episodes were analysed qualitatively. We suggest that inter-professional teamwork can be implemented by collegial support, transgressing professional roles and sustaining an inclusive atmosphere. There is a need to strengthen and develop the practices of inter-professional education, not only in formal educational but, especially, in practical clinical settings. (Contains 1 table and 1 figure.)

In Finnish VET, students' work experience is explicitly defined as workplace learning, instead of the practice of already learnt skills. Therefore, vocational students' learning periods in the workplace are goal-oriented, guided and assessed. This paper examines the characteristics of students' workplace learning and compares them with the characteristics of employees' workplace learning. The data were collected with an Internet questionnaire from final-year vocational students (N = 3106). In total, 1603 students (52%) answered the questionnaire. The data were analysed using quantitative methods. The results indicate that features typical of employees' workplace learning can also be found in student learning as well. However, VET-related workplace learning has a number of characteristics that have not been brought to light in research on employees' workplace learning thus far. We suggest that in developing educational practices it would be useful to draw on some of the features of workplace learning such as the use of collaboration and shared practices; conversely for workplace practices it would be useful to draw on some of the features of educational practices. For example, by utilising the structures of students' workplace learning system presented in this study, learning at work could be transformed towards more goal-directed, guided and assessed activity.

Purpose: The aim of this study is to investigate how workers' work-related identity is related to various forms of workplace learning. The study also aims to show how changes in the organization affect both learning and the work-related identity construction of employees. Design/methodology/approach: In-depth interviews with four design engineers were conducted in 2000 and 2007 in Finland. Narrative analysis was used to construct four stories that were compared at two different points in time to find out what changes and development took place in relation to experiences of learning and work-related identity. Findings: The findings suggest that learning and work-related identity are related to one another in many ways. Usually this relationship is individually constituted, but many of its elements are socially shared. Work-related identity is constructed strategically as one of many identities constituted in the other areas of life. Practical implications: The findings of this study show that employers should bear in mind the importance of this interrelationship in order to promote employees' commitment and so facilitate their continuous learning and construction of their work-related identity. Originality/value: This paper provides useful information on how changes in the organization affect both learning and the work-related identity construction of employees. (Contains 2 tables.)

This paper analyses and discusses different constraints on workplace learning, vocational development and formation of identity. We ask how the learning and development of vocational identities are related to the various learning constraints and restrictions present in the socio-cultural contexts of the workplace. The study utilizes 20 interviews of industrial designers and nursing staff in Finland. The data on the vocational students was collected with Internet questionnaires (N?=?1125) from these two fields; technology and transport, and social services and health care. The results indicated that constraints on learning and professional/vocational identity development at work were mainly social in nature among employees as well as students. Therefore, we suggest that the most necessary conditions for workers' and students' learning are related to the feeling of "weness" that arises from individuals' active participation in the social community.

The field of workplace learning lacks empirical studies that view workplace practices as places for learning and see these practices in a critical light. Accordingly, the aim of this study is, first, to describe examples of everyday shared practice and consider what kinds of various conflicting aims and demands exist in it. Second, the purpose is to explore what and how it is possible to learn through these shared practices in the area of design and development work. The empirical material consists of ethnographic observations made in two organizations in Finland. Three thematic lines were extracted from field notes and transcribed work talk on the basis of ethnographic and adapted membership categorization analysis. They suggest that the maintenance of a good atmosphere was an important component of shared practice and learning through it. Shared practice was also found to be situated and open-ended and it contained conflicts and contradictory aims. The findings reported here suggest that to survive, everyday work involves doing and learning, and sometimes disagreeing. Conflicts seem to strengthen a team's ability to co-operate and to sustain functional social relations. Attention should thus be paid to the constantly changing processes of work and to situational analyses of the different options within practice provided by the various aims of the work itself and the tasks done in accordance with those aims. (Contains 1 table.)

Purpose: The paper seeks to investigate design engineers' and product developers' learning through their work. The aim was to approach designers' work practice and their learning in the course of it as perceived by the designers themselves. The aim is also to examine their learning through the various individual and social processes, which take place in the workplace. Design/methodology/approach: The ethnographic approach in this paper, with its use of combined and qualitative data gathering and analytical methods, was selected to approach the aim described above. Observations in two Finnish high-tech companies and interviews with 18 designers were conducted. The observations and interviews were analysed with help of combined methods of analysis, such as phenomenographic, narrative and ethnographic analysis. Findings: The findings in this paper suggest that in redefining designers' work and learning, four central themes are important: design practice is learning in itself; there is a close relationship between formal and practical knowledge in designers' learning at work; previous work experience plays an essential role in learning; and design practices and learning should be seen as shared, situated and contextualized. Practical implications: In the paper general suggestions concerning the guidance of workplace learning are given, and the challenges of guiding and assessing workplace learning in the vocational education context are examined. There is a clear need for more effective integration between education and working life. Originality/value: The paper illustrates that individual and social practice and learning in the workplace should be analysed as interdependent and intertwined. (Contains 2 tables.)

Taking an approach to learning in the workplace as a phenomenon situated and accumulated in the course of work activities and everyday practice, the purpose of this study was to investigate how workers (development engineers and designers) themselves perceive the role of experience in work and learning. The empirical material consists of interviews with 18 employees in two enterprises in Finland. Narrative analysis of the holistic core stories yielded four thematic categories. The categories indicate that learning from experience plays an essential part in coping and learning along with other people, in understanding holistic work processes and in creating a personal perception of one's work and the learning that takes place in its course. It is suggested that the essence of learning through experience in everyday practice challenges the employers, first, to pay attention to the maintenance of a collaborative working atmosphere, second, to arrange possibilities for the continuous analysis of tasks within working teams and networks and, third to see their experienced fellow workers as mentors in order to harness the know-how embedded in teams and organisations to better benefit all workers.

Phenomenographic analysis of observations and interviews of 18 Finnish engineers and product designers yielded six ways of learning: through doing work, through collegial interaction, through evaluation of work experiences, through taking on new tasks, through formal education, and through experiences outside work. (Contains 66 references.) (SK)

Solar radiation initiates photochemical oxidation of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) to dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) in inland waters, contributing to their carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere. Models can determine photochemical DIC production over large spatiotemporal scales and assess its role in aquatic C cycling. The apparent quantum yield (AQY) spectrum for photochemical DIC production, defined as mol DIC produced per mol chromophoric dissolved organic matter‐absorbed photons, is a critical model parameter. In previous studies, the principle for the determination of AQY spectra is the same but methodological specifics differ, and the extent to which these differences influence AQY spectra and simulated aquatic DIC photoproduction is unclear. Here, four laboratories determined AQY spectra from water samples of eight inland waters that are situated in Alaska, Finland, and Sweden and span a nearly 10‐fold range in DOM absorption coefficients. All AQY values fell within the range previously reported for inland waters. The inter‐laboratory coefficient of variation (CV) for wavelength‐integrated AQY spectra (300–450 nm) averaged 38% ± 3% SE, and the inter‐water CV averaged 63% ± 1%. The inter‐laboratory CV for simulated photochemical DIC production (conducted for the five Swedish lakes) averaged 49% ± 12%, and the inter‐water CV averaged 77% ± 10%. This uncertainty is not surprising given the complexities and methodological choices involved in determining DIC AQY spectra and needs to be considered when applying photochemical rate modeling. Thus, we also highlight current methodological limitations and suggest future improvements for DIC AQY determination to reduce inter‐laboratory uncertainty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Dermatitis herpetiformis (DH) is a cutaneous manifestation of celiac disease. Both conditions are treated with a restrictive life-long gluten-free diet (GFD). Treated celiac disease patients have been shown to have more severe gastrointestinal symptoms and inferior quality of life compared with healthy controls, but evidence regarding quality of life in DH is lacking. Objective: The aim was to evaluate whether long-term GFD-treated DH patients suffer from persistent gastrointestinal symptoms and if they experience a drawdown in quality of life. Methods: Gastrointestinal symptoms and quality of life were assessed in 78 long-term GFD-treated DH patients using the validated Gastrointestinal Symptom Rating Scale, Psychological General Well-Being and Short Form 36 Health Survey questionnaires. The findings were compared with 110 healthy controls, population-based reference values and 371 treated celiac disease controls. Results: The median age of the DH patients at the time of the study was 57 years, and 51 % were male. Significant differences in gastrointestinal symptoms or quality of life were not detected when treated DH patients were compared with healthy controls, but treated DH patients had less severe gastrointestinal symptoms and increased quality of life compared with celiac disease controls. Female DH patients had more severe gastrointestinal symptoms and reduced vitality compared with male DH patients. The presence of skin symptoms and the adherence to or duration of GFD did not have any influence on gastrointestinal symptoms or quality of life. Conclusion: We conclude that long-term GFD-treated DH patients do not suffer from the burden of dietary treatment and have a quality of life comparable to that of controls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Radial growth of boreal tree species is only rarely studied in riparian habitats. Here we investigated chronologies of earlywood, latewood, and annual ring widths and blue intensity (BI; a surrogate to latewood density) from riparian lake shore and upland forest interior pines ( Pinus sylvestris L.) growing in boreal forest in eastern Finland. Riparian and upland chronologies were compared to examine differences in the pine growth variability and growth response to climatic variation in the two habitats. It was found that the climatic variables showing statistically significant correlations with the tree-ring chronologies were related to snow conditions at the start of the growing season. Deeper snowpack led to reduced upland pine growth, possibly due to delayed snowmelt and thus postponed onset of the growing season. Warm late winters were followed by increased riparian pine growth because of earlier start of the snow-melt season and thus a lower maximum early summer lake level. Moreover, riparian pines reacted negatively to increased rainfall in June, whereas the upland pines showed a positive response. Latewood growth reacted significantly to summer temperatures. The BI chronology showed a strong correlation with warm-season temperatures, indicating an encouraging possibility of summer temperature reconstruction using middle/south boreal pine tree-ring archives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Dermatitis herpetiformis (DH) is an extra-intestinal manifestation of coeliac disease and most patients adhere to a life-long gluten free diet (GFD). Increased mortality rates have been reported in coeliac disease but knowledge in DH is scanty. Objectives To survey the mortality rate and causes of death in a large cohort of patients with DH. Material and methods Patients with DH ( n = 476 consecutive patients) diagnosed from 1970 onwards at the Tampere University Hospital were analysed for causes of death during 1971-2010. A questionnaire survey on key aspects of health behaviour was performed in patients with DH and comparisons were made with the Finnish population. Results The total number of deaths during 9079 person years followed up was 77 whereas 110 were expected. The standardized mortality rate (SMR) for all causes of death was significantly reduced, being 0·70 (95% CI 0·55-0·87), and similar in both sexes. The SMR was equal in the patients with DH with (0·73) and without (0·77) small bowel villous atrophy. The SMR was significantly reduced (0·38) for deaths due to cerebrovascular diseases. The SMR due to lymphoproliferative malignancies was significantly increased (6·86) in the first 5 years of follow-up but not thereafter. The questionnaire survey documented that 97·7% of the patients with DH adhered to a GFD. The patients reported significantly less hypercholesterolaemia and there were fewer current and past smokers compared with the age- and sex-matched control population. Conclusions The present long-term follow-up study of DH documented significantly reduced all-cause and cerebrovascular disease mortality. Strict adherence to a GFD, less smoking and hypercholesterolaemia may play a role in the observed health benefit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Background: An increased mortality has been reported in patients with Crohn''s disease (CD), while figures have remained similar or decreased in patients with ulcerative colitis (UC) compared to the population in general. We evaluated the long-term mortality risk of patients with inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) in a well-defined population. Methods: The data were based on a prospective IBD register in our catchment area; follow-up covered 1986–2007. The population based cohort comprised 1915 adult patients, 1254 with UC, 550 with CD, and 111 with inflammatory bowel disease unclassified (IBDU). The mortality rate and causes of death were obtained from Statistics Finland. Results: We recorded 223 deaths among the 1915 patients with IBD within a follow-up of 29,644 person-years. The standardised mortality rate (SMR) was 1.14 in CD and 0.90 in UC. In cause-specific mortality; the risk of death in diseases of the digestive system was significantly increased in CD (SMR 5.38). The mortality in colorectal cancer was non-significantly increased in both UC and CD (SMR 1.80 and 1.88, respectively). Compared to the background population, there were significantly fewer deaths due to mental and behavioural disorders due to use of alcohol (0 observed, 10.2 expected in IBD). Conclusions: The overall mortality in CD and CU was not different from that in the population. In cause-specific mortality, diseases of the digestive system were significantly increased. Deaths due to mental and behavioural disorders resulting from alcohol consumption were less common in patients with IBD than in the population at large in Finland. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Objective. There is evidence that the incidence of inflammatory bowel diseases is increasing, but the data are inconsistent. For appropriate allocation of health care resources, knowledge of the actual occurrence of diseases is important. We here conducted an epidemiological survey using a population-based register in a well-defined area representative of the whole Finnish population. Material and methods. The collection of cases took place in 1986–1999 in the Tampere region, which comprised 363,000 adults in 1999. All municipal centers detecting and managing inflammatory bowel diseases participated in the study. Particular effort was made to register all cases. Results. The total number of patients was 1691. The prevalence per 100,000 inhabitants in 1986 was 119 for ulcerative colitis (UC), 40 for Crohn's disease (CD) and 9 for inflammatory bowel disease unclassified (IBDU); in 1999 the respective figures were 291, 124 and 27. During the study period, the annual incidence of UC increased from 13.3 to 19.6 per 100,000, and that of CD from 5.0 to 9.4, whereas the incidence of IBDU decreased from 1.2 to 0.3. The extent of the diseases remained by and large unaltered over the time of survey. Conclusions. An increasing trend was observed in the number of patients with inflammatory bowel disease, and the frequency was higher than that reported in most surveys. This increase constitutes a challenge for the health care system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective. The majority of patients with coeliac disease remain undetected world-wide. Finland has aimed at a high detection rate by training health personnel, and has advocated serologic screening for known coeliac disease risk groups. The purpose here was to assess whether this approach has been effective in clinical practice. Material and methods. The study was based on a prospective database of new coeliac patients aged 16 years or more, to whom the Social Insurance Institution had paid monthly compensation for the additional cost of maintaining a gluten-free diet since 2002. To obtain this compensation the diagnostic criteria for coeliac disease, including biopsy findings, had to be attested in a statement from a physician. The incidence and prevalence rates were calculated until the end of 2006. The total population aged 16 years or more was 4.31 million. Results. In 2004-06, a total of 5020 persons (64% female) receiving a new dietary grant were identified through the database. The mean annual incidence of proven coeliac disease was thus 39 per 100,000 individuals. Altogether, 23,553 persons received the dietary grant. This gives a nation-wide point prevalence of adult coeliac disease of 0.55% (0.70% F, 0.38% M). There was a regional variation from 33 to 49 per 100,000 in the annual incidence and from 0.41% to 0.72% in the prevalence of coeliac disease. Conclusions. To the best of our knowledge, these figures for proven coeliac disease are the highest reported. Increased alertness to the condition and active case finding has made this efficient diagnostics possible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Celiac disease (CD) is a common small intestinal injury caused by sensitivity to gliadin in genetically-predisposed individuals. The only susceptibility locus established is the HLA-DQ. We tested whether the chromosomal region of the CD28/CTLA4 genes on 2q33 is linked to CD. These genes encode receptors regulating the T-lymphocyte activation. Recently, this gene region was reported to be linked to the susceptibility to many autoimmune diseases, including insulin-dependent diabetes (IDDM12locus). It is thus an obvious candidate locus also for CD, since the intestinal injury is mediated by the immune system. Genetic linkage between seven marker loci in this gene region and CD was studied in 69 Finnish families. In the multipoint linkage analysis, the highest non-pararametric linkage score (NPL) was 1.75 (P=0.04) for D2S116, suggesting weak linkage for this candidate locus. To evaluate this finding, an additional 31 families were typed for all markers. In the combined set of 100 families the NPL score for marker D2S116 was 2.55 (P=0.006) and for other markers 1.90–2.47 (P=0.029–0.007), supporting genuine linkage at this region. Significantly, locus D2S116 also showed a clear allelic association in these 100 families (P=0.0001). The transmission/disequilibrium test (TDT) for locus D2S116 gave preliminary evidence for preferential maternal non-transmission of allele *136 to patients (TDT[sub max]=8.3; P<0.05). No paternal deviation was found suggesting that the effect of the locus might be mediated by a sex-dependent factor protective against CD. Our results indicate that the CD28/CTLA4 gene region can contain a novel susceptibility locus for CD and support the hypothesis that CD has an immune system-mediated component. Like the HLA, the CD28/CTLA4 genes appear to be associated with genetic susceptibility to various autoimmune diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this retrospective study was to reveal the causes of bovine abortions, stillbirths and neonatal deaths in Finland. All cases submitted for necropsy to laboratories of the Finnish Food Safety Authority Evira between 1999 and 2006 were included. A total of 434 cases were received, of which the majority (336) were obtained as routine laboratory diagnostic service and additional 98 cases from two research projects. The production type was available in 242 cases, of which 55% were from dairy farms and 45% beef cow-calf farms. A total of 271 entire fetuses, 147 stillborn or neonatal calves dead within the first 24 hours and sixteen tissue samples were obtained. Placental tissue was available in 116 cases (26%). A full necropsy was performed to fetuses and calves including sample collection for histopathology, bacteriology and virology as appropriate. Conventional bacteriological methods were used for culturing aerobic, anaerobic, and microaerophilic bacteria, fungi, salmonella, campylobacteria, and staining for brucella. Since 2004 detection of mycoplasma was performed (total n = 146). BVD (n = 188) and IBR (n = 188) viruses were isolated in cell culture and serology was used for BVD, IBR and bovine parvovirus for 48, 50, and 93 samples, respectively. Macroscopic or microscopic lesions were detected in 48% (136/286) of abortions and in 70% (103/148) of stillbirths or neonatal calves. Inflammatory lesions suggesting bacterial infection were detected in 30% (85/286) of fetuses and in 14% (20/148) of stillbirths. Bacteriological isolation considered as significant was made in 26% of fetuses and 10% of stillbirths. The most common infectious agents isolated from abortions were Arcanobacterium pyogenes (27/280, 10% of cultured samples), Bacillus licheniformis (15/280, 5%), Listeria monocytogenes (13/280, 5%), and Ureaplasma diversum (12/93, 13%). Five cases were culture positive for fungi or yeasts (5/249, 2%). Other bacteria such as Escherichia coli (4), Staphylococcus spp. (2), Fusobacterium spp. (1), Bordetella sp. (1), Salmonella sp. (1), and Pseudomonas sp. (1) were found occasionally. In neonatal calves Bacillus licheniformis (7/140, 5%)) was the most common bacterial isolation, followed by Escherichia coli (3), Staphylococcus sp. (3) and Arcanobacterium pyogenes (1), Streptococcus sp. (1) and Mannheimia varigena (1). Neospora caninum was diagnosed from three cases showing encephalitis or myositis. None of the samples were positive for BVD or IBR viruses, neither their antibodies. Parvovirus antibodies were common (58%, 56/93), however no pathological lesions were associated with parvovirus seropositivity. Thus the significance of this finding remains questionable. Congenital malformations were recorded in 7% (21/286) of abortions and in 10% (14/148) of neonatal deaths. Most common were heart defects (1% in fetuses and 4% in neonatal calves) and hydrocephalus (2% in fetuses and 1% in neonatal calves). All anomalies were recorded although they possibly were not the cause of the death. Twinning was recorded in 15 cases. Maceration or mummification without a specific cause was detected in ten fetuses (3%). Thyroid hyperplasia was recorded in four fetuses (1%) and in eight (5%) stillborne calves. Asfyksia, fetal fluid aspiration or oedematous or traumatic lesions indicating dystocia were recorded as cause of death in 63/ 148 (43%) still borne or neonatal calves. Our results suggest that the most common causes of prenatal or neonatal death in Finnish calves are sporadic intrauterine bacterial infections, dystocia and congenital anomalies. Ureaplasma diversum has been cultured from abortion samples only for three years, and seems to be one of the most common causes of sporadic abortions. This might be due to introduction of Ureaplasma into previously uninfected herds. Several causative agents which are common in many countries are either rare such as BVD and salmonella or Finland is free of them (IBR and brucellosis). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary Celiac disease can be defined as the classical manifestation of gluten sensitivity, which primarily affects the small intestine. Gluten sensitivity has also a skin manifestation, i.e., dermatitis herpetiformis. Both diseases have a strong genetic association with HLA DQ on chromosome 6. In this study we tried to estimate how much different clinical expressions of gluten sensitivity are determined by genetic factors, and hence how feasible they are for genetic mapping; therefore, we studied all six monozygous twin pairs found among 1292 prospectively collected patients of dermatitis herpetiformis in Finland. Three of the six twin pairs were concordant for dermatitis herpetiformis and for simultaneous enteropathy, celiac disease. Two other twin pairs were partially discordant, one of each pair had dermatitis herpetiformis and celiac disease, whereas the other had solely the gut manifestation of gluten sensitivity, i.e., celiac disease. Only one pair was found to be discordant for gluten sensitivity. All the pairs had typical risk alleles for gluten sensitivity, i.e., either HLA DQ2 or DQ8. These results demonstrate that the genetic component in gluten sensitivity as broadly defined is very strong (5/6 concordant). Genetically identical individuals can have clearly distinguished phenotypes, either dermatitis herpetiformis or celiac disease, suggesting that environmental factors determine the exact phenotype of this multifactorial disease. These findings are of importance in genetic linkage analyses, which focus to only certain phenotypic properties of a complex trait. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]