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This scientific paper provides an overview of the current state of pyrolysis in Europe, with a focus on mapping the key research areas and technologies employed. This research relied on search equations that centered on the utilization of biomass and plastics as primary feedstocks in pyrolysis, with a particular emphasis on biochar generation and different technologies applied. The results showed that both plastic and biomass pyrolysis can contribute to reducing waste and mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. However, plastic pyrolysis can release harmful pollutants due to the presence of chlorine and other additives in plastics, which requires sophisticated emission control systems to be implemented. The production of biochar from sewage sludge is identified as a promising approach for phosphorus recovery, which can subsequently be utilized as a valuable fertilizer in agricultural applications. The data from this study contribute to exploring future applications at pilot and industrial scales for pyrolysis, with a critical assessment of the use of feedstocks. Moreover, this work provides information about current companies that are already operating on a large scale with pyrolysis and a map of the principal countries in Europe engaged in pyrolysis research, correlating the characteristics of the pyrolysis processes investigated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ship engine combustion emits several atmospheric pollutants, such as PM, SOx, and NOx, which can have adverse health effects and are significant contributors to decreased air quality. Due to the distribution of maritime transport activity routes in the EU, a large portion of the population is exposed to shipping emissions throughout Europe. Therefore, in light of the European Commission long-term objective of "zero-waste, zero-emission" for maritime transport, the focus of this study was to quantify the impact of shipping emissions in the present, as well as the future, considering both emissions projection for the shipping sector and a climate change scenario. The WRF-CHIMERE modelling system was used to quantify the impact of shipping in Europe. To obtain the current and future contributions of maritime transport to the total pollutant concentrations, simulations were divided into two present (baseline and without shipping) and three future scenarios (shipping projection, climate change, and shipping projection and climate change). The results indicate that the current and future impacts of shipping emissions on pollutant concentrations are similar in some regions (NO2 for Northern Europe and SO2 for Southern Europe), which is due to the enforcement of emission control areas for those pollutants. However, efforts towards lowering emissions from the shipping sector are negated in the south of this domain due to the concentration changes caused by the climate change scenario. In light of these changes, the introduction of a NECA is proposed for the Mediterranean, which would help us to make great strides to reduce the impact of the shipping sector in the region and aid in counteracting the effects of climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present a newly developed approach to characterize the sources of fine particulate matter (PM2.5)‐related premature deaths in Europe using the chemical transport model GEOS‐Chem and its adjoint. The contributions of emissions from each individual country, species, and sector are quantified and mapped out at km scale. In 2015, total PM2.5‐related premature death is estimated to be 449,813 (257,846–722,138) in Europe, 59.0% of which were contributed by domestic anthropogenic emissions. The anthropogenic emissions of nitrogen oxides, ammonia, and organic carbon contributed most to the PM2.5‐related health damages, making up 29.6%, 23.2%, and 16.8%, respectively of all domestic anthropogenic contributions. Residential, agricultural, and ground transport emissions are calculated to be the largest three sectoral sources of PM2.5‐related health risks, accounting for 23.5%, 23.0%, and 19.4%, respectively, of total anthropogenic contributions within Europe. After excluding the influence of extra‐regional sources, we find eastern European countries suffered from more premature deaths than their emissions caused; in contrast, the emissions from some central and western European regions contributed premature deaths exceeding three times the number of deaths that occurred locally. During 2005–2015, the first decade of PM2.5 regulation in Europe, emission controls reduced PM2.5‐related health damages in nearly all European countries, resulting in 63,538 (46,092–91,082) fewer PM2.5‐related premature deaths. However, our calculation suggests that efforts to reduce air pollution from key sectors in some countries can be offset by the lag in control of emissions in others. International cooperation is therefore vitally important for tackling air pollution and reducing corresponding detrimental effects on public health. Plain Language Summary: We characterize detailed sources of fine particulate matter (PM2.5)‐attributable health burden in Europe using a newly developed modeling approach. Our calculations show PM2.5 pollution led to 449,813 (257,846–722,138) premature deaths in Europe in 2015, 59.0% of which were related to human activities within Europe. Emissions related to household heating and cooking, farming, and automobiles caused the most premature deaths related to air pollution. People living in eastern European countries experienced even greater harmful air pollution effects than their own emissions caused; they are net importers of the health burden. In contrast, emissions from some central and western European regions caused more premature deaths throughout Europe than were experienced locally. Over the course of a decade of policies regulating PM2.5, pollution‐related health impacts declined in nearly all European countries, although the efforts to reduce air pollution from key sources in some countries was partially offset by a lack of effective emission controls in others. The results not only show where air pollution related health risks came from, they also help us to learn about the limitations of local policies at reducing the pollution health risks, as air pollution is often a regional phenomenon crossing the borders within Europe. Key Points: Residential, agricultural, and ground transport emissions were the largest sources of the PM2.5‐related health burden in EuropeEastern Europe experienced more premature deaths than their own emissions caused, making them net importers of the pollution health burdenEmission reductions, most from transport, energy, and industrial sources, reduced pollution health damages in Europe during 2005–2015 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Today, the concept of sustainability covers an increasing number of business areas. The transport sector is one of the largest contributors to air pollution in the world today but still plays a fundamental role in Europe's economic growth. Finding the optimum balance between achieving sustainability objectives and boosting the performance of the transport sector is essential to avoid undermining Europe's economic activity and growth prospects. One of the main tools for promoting environmental, social and economic sustainability is the EURO 7 standards, which have the most significant impact on the transport sector, and which aim to minimise carbon emissions by phasing out the production of combustion-engined cars by 2035, set stricter emission standards and introduce various emission control mechanisms. Each EU country has ambitious carbon minimisation goals. However, the current vehicle fleet structure analysis of the EU countries shows negative past and future trends in terms of sustainability factors. The goal of the study is to evaluate the feasibility of achieving the carbon minimisation objectives of the EURO 7 standards in the Baltic countries within the timeframe set. In order to achieve this goal, the structure of the Baltic countries vehicle fleets was analysed in terms of sustainability parameters and the transport sector expert forecasts of achieving the carbon minimisation objectives of the EURO 7 standards in the Baltic countries were collected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Provide an in-depth evolution analysis in the practical development of shore power. • Conduct a systematic bibliometric analysis of pivotal shore power-related publications. • Coordinate practical shore power applications with academic research to highlight the predominant trends. • Divide shore power research into four categories to understand its progress and trends. • Establish well-reasoned remarks, implications, and agenda for future studies. Shore power not only reduces ship emissions and noise in berthing but also has shown practical implications for maritime competitiveness. However, the existing literature and industry reports reveal that a limited number of ships have access to shore power. This highlights the need for research into the constraints faced by the sector and the development of solutions to enhance its adoption. Addressing these issues will enable the port and shipping industries to enjoy the associated benefits. Currently, existing research on shore power remains dispersed, yet it fully addresses such questions and lacks an integrated framework, making it challenging to extract pivotal insights. This paper aims to conduct a state-of-the-art review of shore power by the Web of Science Core Collection and Scopus databases as a pivotal solution to shipping emissions reduction in ports and advancing the maritime sector towards carbon neutrality. This analysis is grounded in a bibliometric analysis of existing literature on this topic, with a focus on the need to devise robust strategies to fully harness the potential of shore power for carbon neutrality. The valuable findings are revealed, including (i) The adoption of shore power by ports is predominantly propelled by regulatory mandates and incentives, inclusive of government subsidies in leading regions such as China, the U.S., and Europe; (ii) Due to the implementation of Emission Control Areas and carbon neutrality regulations, an increasing number of port operators in Europe are turning to shore power to fulfil both the governmental or industrial requirements, especially regarding cruise ships; (iii) The literature on shore power primarily delves into four main research areas: the inherent features of shore power, emission inventory assessments, practical applications of shore power, and energy management strategies; and (iv) Emerging directions in shore power research include cooperative optimisation among stakeholders, integration of new technologies into shore power, a holistic evaluation of the multifaceted advantages of diverse emission reduction strategies, and critical examinations of any unintended consequences stemming from shore power adoption. They offer invaluable insights on enhancing the adaptation and effectiveness of shore power. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ship emissions constitute a large, and so far poorly regulated, source of air pollution. Emissions are mainly clustered along major ship routes both in open seas and close to densely populated shorelines. Major air pollutants emitted include sulfur dioxide, NOx , and primary particles. Sulfur and NOx are both major contributors to the formation of secondary fine particles (PM2.5) and to acidification and eutrophication. In addition, NOx is a major precursor for ground-level ozone. In this paper, we quantify the contributions from international shipping to European air pollution levels and depositions. This study is based on global and regional model calculations. The model runs are made with meteorology and emission data representative of the year 2017 after the tightening of the SECA (sulfur emission control area) regulations in 2015 but before the global sulfur cap that came into force in 2020. The ship emissions have been derived using ship positioning data. We have also made model runs reducing sulfur emissions by 80 % corresponding to the 2020 requirements. This study is based on model sensitivity studies perturbing emissions from different sea areas: the northern European SECA in the North Sea and the Baltic Sea, the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea, the Atlantic Ocean close to Europe, shipping in the rest of the world, and finally all global ship emissions together. Sensitivity studies have also been made setting lower bounds on the effects of ship plumes on ozone formation. Both global- and regional-scale calculations show that for PM2.5 and depositions of oxidised nitrogen and sulfur, the effects of ship emissions are much larger when emissions occur close to the shore than at open seas. In many coastal countries, calculations show that shipping is responsible for 10 % or more of the controllable PM2.5 concentrations and depositions of oxidised nitrogen and sulfur. With few exceptions, the results from the global and regional calculations are similar. Our calculations show that substantial reductions in the contributions from ship emissions to PM2.5 concentrations and to depositions of sulfur can be expected in European coastal regions as a result of the implementation of a 0.5 % worldwide limit of the sulfur content in marine fuels from 2020. For countries bordering the North Sea and Baltic Sea SECA, low sulfur emissions have already resulted in marked reductions in PM2.5 from shipping before 2020. For ozone, the lifetime in the atmosphere is much longer than for PM2.5 , and the potential for ozone formation is much larger in otherwise pristine environments. We calculate considerable contributions from open sea shipping. As a result, we find that the largest contributions to ozone in several regions and countries in Europe are from sea areas well outside European waters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract A literature study was carried out with respect to the release and accumulation of formaldehyde indoors. With reference to representative emission data, exposure scenarios were calculated on the basis of the European Reference Room with the aid of Monte-Carlo methods. Furthermore, data concerning formaldehyde concentrations in indoor and outdoor air, as well as data on air exchange, were collected for the European region. Various permanent, intermitting and temporary emission sources were compared under the specified conditions of the Reference Room. It was thereby necessary to bear in mind that, for example, the emission tests for raw wood-based materials and mineral wool do not take place under realistic conditions, as these products are not applied open in indoor areas. It is demonstrated that coatings and coverings drastically reduce the release of formaldehyde into the room air. Moreover, it becomes clear that the Reference Room concept allows a comparison of emission sources but also greatly overestimates the formaldehyde concentrations in indoor areas when diverse sources are simply added together. In view of the discussed aspects, as well as taking into account outdoor air conditions and diverse secondary sources, the potential problem of exposure to high formaldehyde concentrations in indoor areas can therefore not be solved through the further tightening of already existing regulations, in particular because peak concentrations and therefore high exposures would remain largely uninfluenced. Due to the fact that formaldehyde is a compound with a threshold effect, this aspect is of considerable importance. Consequently, an appropriate risk management option would be to primarily address the peak concentrations originating from temporary and intermitting sources. Graphical abstract Image 1 Highlights • Air exchange rates under living conditions in European housings are investigated. • Formaldehyde sources and concentrations in European housings are evaluated. • Permanent, intermitting and temporary formaldehyde sources are identified. • Formaldehyde sources are directly compared by conversion into Reference Room concentrations. • Formaldehyde emission scenarios are calculated under consideration of sink effects and aging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High surface ozone concentrations, which usually occur when photochemical ozone production takes place, pose a great risk to human health and vegetation. Air quality models are often used by policy makers as tools for the development of ozone mitigation strategies. However, the modeled ozone production is often not or not enough evaluated in many ozone modeling studies. The focus of this work is to evaluate the modeled ozone production in Europe indirectly, with the use of the ozone–temperature correlation for the summer of 2010 and to analyze its sensitivity to precursor emissions and meteorology by using the regional air quality model, the Comprehensive Air Quality Model with Extensions (CAMx). The results show that the model significantly underestimates the observed high afternoon surface ozone mixing ratios (≥  60 ppb) by 10–20 ppb and overestimates the lower ones (<  40 ppb) by 5–15 ppb, resulting in a misleading good agreement with the observations for average ozone. The model also underestimates the ozone–temperature regression slope by about a factor of 2 for most of the measurement stations. To investigate the impact of emissions, four scenarios were tested: (i) increased volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions by a factor of 1.5 and 2 for the anthropogenic and biogenic VOC emissions, respectively, (ii) increased nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions by a factor of 2, (iii) a combination of the first two scenarios and (iv) increased traffic-only NOx emissions by a factor of 4. For southern, eastern, and central (except the Benelux area) Europe, doubling NOx emissions seems to be the most efficient scenario to reduce the underestimation of the observed high ozone mixing ratios without significant degradation of the model performance for the lower ozone mixing ratios. The model performance for ozone–temperature correlation is also better when NOx emissions are doubled. In the Benelux area, however, the third scenario (where both NOx and VOC emissions are increased) leads to a better model performance. Although increasing only the traffic NOx emissions by a factor of 4 gave very similar results to the doubling of all NOx emissions, the first scenario is more consistent with the uncertainties reported by other studies than the latter, suggesting that high uncertainties in NOx emissions might originate mainly from the road-transport sector rather than from other sectors. The impact of meteorology was examined with three sensitivity tests: (i) increased surface temperature by 4 °C, (ii) reduced wind speed by 50 % and (iii) doubled wind speed. The first two scenarios led to a consistent increase in all surface ozone mixing ratios, thus improving the model performance for the high ozone values but significantly degrading it for the low ozone values, while the third scenario had exactly the opposite effects. Overall, the modeled ozone is predicted to be more sensitive to its precursor emissions (especially traffic NOx) and therefore their uncertainties, which seem to be responsible for the model underestimation of the observed high ozone mixing ratios and ozone production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For consistent and effective CO2 reduction, many countries need to improve not only the technical efficiency of CO2 mitigation, but also environmental responsibility. In this study, we examine both the technical efficiency and voluntary environmental consciousness (VEC) of 12 European countries using a two-stage data envelopment analysis (DEA). In the first stage, we measured the technical efficiency of green energy technologies (GET) associated with fossil fuels, renewable energy, and storage technologies of each country for energy generation with regard to CO2 emissions by surveying GET-related patents. Using the logarithmic mean Divisia index (LMDI), we decomposed CO2 emissions into the following technological factors: energy intensity, fuel mix, and CO2 emission coefficient. In the second stage, we quantified the VEC in each country by investigating GET patent changes via research and development (R&D) investment at given changes in CO2 emissions. The results show different aspects for each country in terms of technical efficiency and VEC, suggesting potential levels of both efficient CO2 reductions and desirable GET development by using reference countries as a benchmark. Our study methodology and results can contribute to establishing effective national technology policy and aid in calls for common responsibility and the active participation of nations in addressing climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the framework of the IMPACT2C project, we have evaluated the future European particulate matter concentrations under the influence of climate change and anthropogenic emission reductions. To do so, 30-year simulations for present and future scenarios were performed with an ensemble of four regional Chemical Transport Models. +2 °C scenarios were issued from different regional climate simulations belonging to the CORDEX experiment (RCP4.5 scenario). Comparing present day simulations to observations shows that these simulations meet the requested quality criteria even if some biases do exist. Also, we showed that using regional climate models instead of meteorological reanalysis was not critical for the quality of our simulations. Present day as well as future scenarios show the large variability between models associated with different meteorology and process parameterizations. Future projections of PM concentrations show a large reduction of PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations in a +2 °C climate over the European continent (especially over Benelux), which can be mostly attributed to emission reduction policies. Under a current legislation scenario, annual PM10 could be reduced by between 1.8 and 2.9 μg m −3 (14.1–20.4%). If maximum technologically feasible emission reductions were implemented, further reductions of 1.4–1.9 μg m −3 (18.6–20.9%) are highlighted. Changes due to a +2 °C warming, in isolation from emission changes, are in general much weaker (−1.1 to +0.4 μg m −3 ,-0.3 to +5.1% for annual PM10 averaged over the European domain). Even if large differences exist between models, we have determined that the decrease of PM over Europe associated with emission reduction is a robust result. The patterns of PM changes resulting from climate change (for example the increase of PM over Spain and southern France and the decrease of PM10 over eastern Europe) are also robustly predicted even if its amplitude remains weak compared to changes associated with emission reductions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Roadside measurements of particle size distributions from 2010 to 2021. • Diesel particle filters introduced from 2011 steadily reduce black carbon concentrations. • Nucleation mode particles are little changed and total ultrafine particles show a small decline in concentration. • Ultrafine particle concentrations remain in the "high" category as defined by WHO. Diesel engines are a major contributor to emissions of both Black Carbon (BC) and ultrafine particles. Analysis of data from the only roadside monitoring site in Europe with a continuous dataset for size-segregated particle number count (Marylebone Road, London) from 2010 to 2021 reveals that the growing number of vehicles fitted with a Diesel Oxidation Catalyst (DOC) and Diesel Particle Filter (DPF) has been very effective in controlling the emissions of solid particles and hence BC, but that there has been little change in the liquid mode (<30 nm) particles, and that concentrations of ultrafine particles (<100 nm) still well exceed the threshold for "high" concentrations (>104 cm−3 /24-hour mean) defined by WHO. BC declined by 81% between 2014 and 2021, but the ultrafine particle (<100 nm) count declined by only 26%. Consequently, in locations worldwide with heavy diesel traffic, concentrations of ultrafine particles are likely to remain "high" for the foreseeable future unless more effective abatement technologies are implemented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electric vehicles are considered the most promising alternative to internal combustion engine vehicles towards a cleaner transportation sector. Having null tailpipe emissions, electric vehicles contribute to fight localized pollution, which is particularly important in overpopulated urban areas. However, the electric vehicle implies greenhouse gas emissions related to its production and to the electricity generation needed to charge its batteries. This study focuses the analysis on how the electric vehicle emissions vary when compared to internal combustion engine vehicles, depending on the electric power plant fleet and the efficiency during the use-phase. For this to be done, the Global Warming Potential (GWP) associated to the electricity generation on the electric vehicle most selling European countries are calculated. Similarly, electric vehicle's use-phase energy efficiency is calculated under a wide range of driving conditions using the Monte Carlo method. The results from energy production and energy use-phases are compared to the GWP calculated for internal combustion engine vehicles for six different driving cycles, to obtain the threshold values for which electric vehicles provide GWP reduction. These threshold values are then matched with the current electricity power plant fleet and the electric vehicle promotion incentives of the European countries considered in the study, showing that some countries ( e.g. France or Norway) are better-suited for electric vehicles adoption, while countries like Spain or Portugal should boost electric vehicle promotion policies. Furthermore, other countries in Europe, such as Germany or the UK that are doing an effort on decarbonizing their power plant fleet, do not offer immediate greenhouse gas emission reductions for the uptake of electric vehicles instead of conventional cars. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Manufacturing could be described as a sequence of activities for the production of goods. The necessary activities require the transformation of materials and resources which beyond the expected good leads to detrimental emissions to air, water, and soil compartments. In recent years stricter regulations were adopted in Europe, forcing industry to implement cleaner processes. Manufacturing of automobiles involve resource intensive activities, with painting processes sharing a significant portion of the environmental burden. A need is foreseen for methodologies to best support industry in their efforts to improve the implementation of environmental strategies and solutions. A framework based on literature review and a French project is proposed that aims at providing a structured and consistent approach to install life cycle thinking at the plant level for the painting of automobile metal and plastic surfaces. A European paint shop example is used to present the application of the framework. Metal surface data is representative of Germany while plastic surface data is representative of France. Results showed that opportunities for process and system improvement are tightly associated to cost, plant size and age, and to the existing constraints and context of the paint shop. Process optimization, improvement potential, trade-off analysis, uncertainty analysis (temporal and spatial variability), and multi-criteria analysis were identified as key research tools and sub-disciplines that have a strong influence in the search of novel solutions and the assertion of environmental impact assessment. The proposed framework will be useful for plant managers to better determine environmental strategies, to guide continuous process improvement, and to facilitate decision-making by linking plant historical data, operating parameters, and life cycle thinking with environmental assessment methodologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ambient particle number size distributions were measured in Paris, France, during summer (1-31 July 2009) and winter (15 January to 15 February 2010) at three fixed ground sites and using two mobile laboratories and one airplane. The campaigns were part of the Megacities: Emissions, urban, regional and Global Atmospheric POLlution and climate effects, and Integrated tools for assessment and mitigation (MEGAPOLI) project. New particle formation (NPF) was observed only during summer on approximately 50% of the campaign days, assisted by the low condensation sink (about 10.7 ± 5.9 × 10-3 s-1). NPF events inside the Paris plume were also observed at 600 m altitude onboard an aircraft simultaneously with regional events identified on the ground. Increased particle number concentrations were measured aloft also outside of the Paris plume at the same altitude, and were attributed to NPF. The Paris plume was identified, based on increased particle number and black carbon concentration, up to 200 km away from the Paris center during summer. The number concentration of particles with diameters exceeding 2.5 nm measured on the surface at the Paris center was on average 6.9 ± 8.7 × 104 and 12.1 ± 8.6 × 104 cm-3 during summer and winter, respectively, and was found to decrease exponentially with distance from Paris. However, further than 30 km from the city center, the particle number concentration at the surface was similar during both campaigns. During summer, one suburban site in the NE was not significantly affected by Paris emissions due to higher background number concentrations, while the particle number concentration at the second suburban site in the SW increased by a factor of 3 when it was downwind of Paris. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite increasing emission controls, particulate matter (PM) has remained a critical issue for European air quality in recent years. The various sources of PM, both from primary particulate emissions as well as secondary formation from precursor gases, make this a complex problem to tackle. In order to allow for credible predictions of future concentrations under policy assumptions, a modelling approach is needed that considers all chemical processes and spatial dimensions involved, from long-range transport of pollution to local emissions in street canyons. Here we describe a modelling scheme which has been implemented in the GAINS integrated assessment model to assess compliance with PM10 (PM with aerodynamic diameter < 10 pm) limit values at individual air quality monitoring stations reporting to the Air-Base database. The modelling approach relies on a combination of bottom up modelling of emissions, simplified atmospheric chemistry and dispersion calculations, and a traffic increment calculation wherever applicable. At each monitoring station fulfilling a few data coverage criteria, measured concentrations in the base year 2009 are explained to the extent possible and then modelled for the past and future. More than 1850 monitoring stations are covered, including more than 300 traffic stations and 80 % of the stations which exceeded the EU air quality limit values in 2009. As a validation, we compare modelled trends in the period 2000-2008 to observations, which are well reproduced. The modelling scheme is applied here to quantify explicitly source contributions to ambient concentrations at several critical monitoring stations, displaying the differences in spatial origin and chemical composition of urban roadside PM10 across Europe. Furthermore, we analyse the predicted evolution of PM10 concentrations in the European Union until 2030 under different policy scenarios. Significant improvements in ambient PM10 concentrations are expected assuming successful implementation of already agreed legislation; however, these will not be large enough to ensure attainment of PM10 limit values in hot spot locations such as Southern Poland and major European cities. Remaining issues are largely eliminated in a scenario applying the best available emission control technologies to the maximal technically feasible extent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

European CH4 and N2O emissions are estimated for 2006 and 2007 using four inverse modelling systems, based on different global and regional Eulerian and Lagrangian transport models. This ensemble approach is designed to provide more realistic estimates of the overall uncertainties in the derived emissions, which is particularly important for verifying bottom-up emission inventories. We use continuous observations from 10 European stations (including 5 tall towers) for CH4 and 9 continuous stations for N2O, complemented by additional European and global discrete air sampling sites. The available observations mainly constrain CH4 and N2O emissions from northwestern and eastern Europe. The inversions are strongly driven by the observations and the derived total emissions of larger countries show little dependence on the emission inventories used a priori. Three inverse models yield 26-56% higher total CH4 emissions from north-western and eastern Europe compared to bottom-up emissions reported to the UNFCCC, while one model is close to the UNFCCC values. In contrast, the inverse modelling estimates of European N2O emissions are in general close to the UNFCCC values, with the overall range from all models being much smaller than the UNFCCC uncertainty range for most countries. Our analysis suggests that the reported uncertainties for CH4 emissions might be underestimated, while those for N2O emissions are likely overestimated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Low-emission zones are currently one of several tools which are in use for the improvement of air quality thanks to the limited entry of vehicles to European city centres. This article describes basic characteristics and parameters of low-emission zones in comparison with other types of used restrictions and explains the evaluation system of particularly environmental benefits and impacts. These theoretic assumptions are confronted with established low-emission zones in selected European urban areas; measured benefits and impacts of individual measures are evaluated and compared. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Fine Resolution Atmospheric Multi-pollutant Exchange Model was used to calculate the spatial distribution and chemical composition of PM concentrations for two geographically remote countries in Europe-the UK and Poland-for the year 2007. These countries are diverse in terms of pollutant emissions as well as climate conditions. Information on the contribution of natural and anthropogenic as well as national and imported particles in total PM concentrations in both countries is presented. The paper shows that the modelled national annual average PM concentrations, calculated for the entire country area, are similar for the UK and Poland and close to 12 μg m. Secondary inorganic aerosols dominate the total PM concentrations in Poland. Primary particulate matter has the greatest contribution to total PM in the UK, with large contribution of base cations. Anthropogenic sources predominate (81 %) in total PM concentrations in Poland, whereas natural prevail in the UK-hence, the future reduction of PM air concentrations by emissions reduction could be more difficult in the UK than in Poland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] We use a microscale modeling platform to assess Traffic Management Strategies. [•] We study the impact of HOV/eco-lanes in different road types on emissions. [•] HOV/eco-lanes in a medium European city are feasible in terms of emissions. [•] On freeways, passengers can reduce travel time (2%) and emissions (37% to 43%). [•] On urban and arterials, emissions can be reduced if the AOV increases. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In this work, the source of ambient particulate matter (PM10) collected over a one-year period at an urban background site in Lens (France) was determined and investigated using a positive matrix factorization receptor model (US EPA PMF v3.0). In addition, a potential source contribution function (PSCF) was performed by means of the Hybrid Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory (Hysplit) v4.9 model to assess prevailing geographical origins of the identified sources. A selective iteration process was followed for the qualification of the more robust and meaningful PMF solution. Components measured and used in the PMF included inorganic and organic species: soluble ionic species, trace elements, elemental carbon (EC), sugar alcohols, sugar anhydride, and organic carbon (OC). The mean PM10 concentration measured from March 2011 to March 2012 was about 21 μg m-3 with typically OM, nitrate and sulfate contributing to most of the mass and accounting respectively for 5.8, 4.5 and 2.3 μg m-3 on a yearly basis. Accordingly, PMF outputs showed that the main emission sources were (in decreasing order of contribution) secondary inorganic aerosols (28% of the total PM10 mass), aged marine emissions (19%), with probably predominant contribution of shipping activities, biomass burning (13%), mineral dust (13%), primary biogenic emissions (9%), fresh sea salts (8%), primary traffic emissions (6%) and heavy oil combustion (4%). Significant temporal variations were observed for most of the identified sources. In particular, biomass burning emissions were negligible in summer but responsible for about 25% of total PM10 and 50% of total OC in wintertime. Conversely, primary biogenic emissions were found to be negligible in winter but to represent about 20% of total PM10 and 40% of total OC in summer. The latter result calls for more investigations of primary biogenic aerosols using source apportionment studies, which quite usually disregard this type of source. This study further underlines the major influence of secondary processes during daily threshold exceedances. Finally, apparent discrepancies that could be generally observed between filter-based studies (such as the present one) and aerosol mass spectrometer-based PMF analyses (organic fractions) are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT A new high-resolution dynamical downscaling strategy to examine how rural and urban areas respond to change in future climate, is presented. The regional climate simulations have been performed with a new version of the limited-area model of the ARPEGE-IFS system running at 4 km resolution coupled with the Town Energy Balance (TEB) scheme. To downscale further the regional climate projections to a urban scale, at 1-km resolution, a stand-alone surface scheme is employed in offline mode. We performed downscaling simulations according to three model set-ups: (1) reference run, where TEB is not activated neither in 4 km simulations nor in 1 km urban simulation, (2) offline run, where TEB is activated only for 1 km urban simulation and (3) inline run, where TEB is activated both for regional and urban simulations. The applicability of this method is demonstrated for Brussels Capital Region, Belgium. For present climate conditions, another set of simulations were performed using European Center for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts global reanalysis ERA40 data. Results from our simulations indicate that the reference and offline runs have comparable values of daytime and nocturnal urban heat island (UHI) and lower values than the inline run. The inline values are closer to observations. In the future climate, under and A1B emission scenario, the three downscaling methods project a decrease of daytime UHI between −0.24 and −0.20 °C, however, their responses are different for nocturnal UHI: (1) reference run values remains unaltered, (2) for the offline runs, the frequency of present climate weak nocturnal UHI decreases to the benefit of negative UHIs leading to a significant decrease in the nocturnal UHI over the city and (3) for the inline run, nocturnal UHIs stays always positive but the frequency of the strong UHI decreases significantly in the future by 1 °C. The physical explanation is put forth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on a powerpoint presentation showing the efforts of Europe to reduce greenhouse gas emission.

Abstract: Tropospheric ozone contributes to the removal of air pollutants from the atmosphere but is itself a pollutant that is harmful to human health and vegetation. Biogenic isoprene emissions are important ozone precursors, and therefore future changes in land use that change isoprene emissions are likely to affect atmospheric ozone concentrations. Here, we use the chemical transport model LOTOS-EUROS (dedicated to the regional modeling of trace gases in Europe) to study a scenario in which 5% of the crop- and grass-land in Europe is converted into poplar plantations to be used for biofuel production. Although this scenario is rather conservative, our simulations project that isoprene emissions are substantially increased by an average of 45% over the simulated domain. As a consequence, ozone peak values are expected to increase by up to 6%, and ozone indicators for damage to human health and vegetation by up to 25% and 40%, respectively. Finally, we show that after the change in land use NO x emission reductions of 15–20% in Europe would be required to restore the ozone levels to current values. Because biomass production is expected to increase throughout Europe in the coming decades, we conclude that careful consideration of the tree types and regions to be used is required to constrain the concomitant air pollution to a minimum. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to provide a descriptive analysis of the carbon management activities of the cement industry in Europe, based on a study involving the four largest producers of cement in the world. Based on this analysis, the paper explores the relationship between managerial perception and strategy, with particular focus on the impact of government regulation and competitive dynamics. Design/methodology/approach – The research is based on extensive documentary analysis and in-depth interviews with senior managers from the four companies who have been responsible for and/or involved in the development of climate change strategies. Findings – It was found that whilst the cement industry has embraced climate change and the need for action, there remains much scope for action in their carbon management activities, with current effort concentrating on hedging practices and win-win efficiency programs. Managers perceive that inadequate and unfavourable regulatory structure is the key barrier against more action to achieve emission reduction within the industry. Interestingly, EU cement companies are also shifting their CO2 emissions to less developed countries of the South. Originality/value – The paper analyses corporate climate strategy in one of the most carbon intensive and yet least studied industries. With specific focus on the EU, the paper highlights a number of policy approaches for encouraging the cement industry on the path of deeper emission reduction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

News briefs are presented on materials science and corrosion. Topics discussed include emission targets set for the European steel manufacturing industry, the book "Applied Mathematics and Modeling for Chemical Engineers," by Richard G. Rice and Duong D. Do, and the 7th International Conference on Concrete under Severe Conditions - Environment and Loading (CONSEC13) Conference, held September 23-25, 2013 in Nanjing, China.

Abstract: Critical loads for acidification and eutrophication and their exceedances were determined for a selection of ecosystem effects monitoring sites in the Integrated Monitoring programme (UNECE ICP IM). The level of protection of these sites with respect to acidifying and eutrophying deposition was estimated for 2000 and 2020. In 2020 more sites were protected from acidification (67%) than in 2000 (61%). However, due to the sensitivity of the sites, even the maximum technically feasible emission reductions scenario would not protect all sites from acidification. In 2000, around 20% of the IM sites were protected from eutrophication. In 2020, under reductions in accordance with current legislation, about one third of the sites would be protected, and at best, with the maximum technically feasible reductions, half of the sites would be protected from eutrophication. Data from intensively monitored sites, such as those in ICP IM, provide a connection between modelled critical thresholds and empirical observations, and thus an indication of the applicability of critical load estimates for natural ecosystems. Across the sites, there was good correlation between the exceedance of critical loads for acidification and key acidification parameters in runoff water, both with annual mean fluxes and concentrations. There was also evidence of a link between exceedances of critical loads of nutrient nitrogen and nitrogen leaching. The collected empirical data of the ICP IM thus allow testing and validation of key concepts used in the critical load calculations. This increases confidence in the European-scale critical loads mapping used in integrated assessment modelling to support emission reduction agreements. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

European regulations set the emissions requirements for new vehicles at 130 g CO2/km, with an additional 10 g CO2/km to be achieved by additional complementary measures, including gear shift indicators. However, there is presently little knowledge of how much fuel or CO2 could actually be saved by the introduction of gear shift indicators, and there is no consensus on how these savings should be quantified. This study presents a procedure which allows these savings to be quantified over a New European Driving Cycle, and explores the trade-off between fuel savings and drivability. A vehicle model was established and calibrated using data obtained from pedal ramp tests conducted at steady speed using a chassis dynamometer, significantly reducing the time required to generate a calibration data set when compared with a steady-state mapping approach. This model was used for the optimisation of gear shift points on the New European Driving Cycle for reduced fuel consumption subject to drivability constraints. During model validation the greatest fuel saving achieved experimentally for a warm engine was 3.6% over the New European Driving Cycle, within the constraints imposed using subjective driver appraisal of vehicle drivability. The same shift strategy for a cold start driving cycle showed a fuel saving of 4.3% over the baseline, with corresponding savings in CO2 of 4.5% or 6.4 g CO2/km. For both hot and cold tests the savings were made entirely in the urban phase of the New European Driving Cycle; there were no significant differences in fuel consumption in the extra-urban phase. These results suggest that the introduction of gear shift indicators could have a substantial impact, contributing significantly towards the 10 g CO2/km to be achieved by additional complementary measures when assessed in this way. It is not clear whether these savings would translate into real world driving conditions, but for legislative purposes an assessment procedure based on the New European Driving Cycle remains a logical choice for simplicity and continuity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Maritime transport in Europe is of great importance for the cohesion and economic development of the European Union, but in turn, and mainly as a result of sulphur emissions, is a source of pollution, particularly in areas close to the coast that tend to accumulate the majority of the population. The European Commission has subsequently defined a series of marine protected areas that are particularly sensitive to pollution and require strict limits on sulphur in ship fuel, these areas being referred to as SECAs (Sulphur Emission Control Areas). This article discusses the results of the implementation of the SECAs in shipping and its implications and development towards greater control in ECAs (Emission Control Areas). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article argues that nurturing the nascent electric vehicle industry and the attempts to achieve low carbon mobility in Europe, while laudable policy aims, lack a coherent treatment of social equity. The transition process is assumed to be largely technocratic and unproblematic. Consequently, the article identifies inter- and intra-regional dimensions of inequality that are emerging around the convergence of transport policy, industrial policy and environmental policy. First, inter-regional competition and a lack of national or international coordination will result in some regions failing to capture the wealth creation benefits of this new industry. Second, within regions the privileges accorded to those owning and using electric vehicles will further exacerbate mobility disadvantage for those excluded from ownership or use. It is concluded that transitions theory is overly technocentric and pluralist, and lacking in critical content. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The impact of climate change and changes in ozone precursor emission on summer surface ozone in Europe was studied using a regional CTM over the period 1990 to 2100. Two different climate simulations under the SRES A1B scenario together with ozone precursor emission changes from the RCP4.5 scenario were used as model input. In southern Europe regional climate change leads to increasing surface ozone concentrations during April-September, but projected emission reductions in Europe have a stronger effect, resulting in net reductions of surface ozone concentrations. In northern Europe regional climate change decreases surface O3 and reduced European emissions acts to further strengthen this trend also when including increasing hemispheric background concentrations. The European O3 precursor emission reductions in RCP4.5 are substantial and it remains to be seen if these reductions can be achieved. There is substantial decadal variability in the simulations forced by climate variability which is important to consider when looking at changes in surface O3 concentrations, especially until the first half of the 21st century. In order to account for changes in background O3 future regional model studies should couple global (hemispheric) and regional CTMs forced by a consistent set of meteorological and precursor emission data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Adaptation to climate change is increasingly recognized as a necessary complement to mitigation, resulting in a growing number of adaptation policies and actions across the globe. This study applies John Kingdon's theory of agenda setting through a multi-level approach to explain the ways in which the climate change adaptation issue has recently developed in four European countries: the United Kingdom, Sweden, Finland and Italy. The study illustrates that a multi-level adaptation policy window has been opened in the context of the UK, whereas adaptation has mainly developed on the national and in specific local cases in Finland and Sweden, while in Italy the issue remains off the agenda. The study thus shows that policy windows may be supported through the interaction of streams at both national and sub-national levels, particularly buttressed by focusing climate events and media reporting. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT This paper shows that the use of a few developed applications of the environmental accounts can provide a useful basis to understand and analyse several strategies to reduce emissions to water. This paper presents figures for emissions to water embodied in imports and exports attributed to different European and non-European countries. Also the effects of volume growth, composition change and technology change are quantified for the different trade flows at country level. The applications illustrate the advantages of using integrated data on emissions to water and economic variables for the years 1996 and 2007 in the Netherlands. Copyright © 2010 Statistics Netherlands. Journal Compilation © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An introduction is presented in which the authors discuss various reports within the issue on topics including Report on Energy and Climate Policy in Europe (RECIPE) Project, the results RECIPE project, and the role and value of technology in low carbon economy.

Abstract: In this paper a multi-objective nonlinear approach to control air quality at a regional scale is presented. Both economic and air quality sides of the problem are modeled through artificial neural network models. Simulating the complex nonlinear atmospheric phenomena, they can be used in an optimization routine to identify the efficient solutions of a decision problem for air quality planning. The methodology is applied over Northern Italy, an area in Europe known for its high concentrations of particulate matter. Results illustrate the effectiveness of the approach assessing the nonlinear chemical reactions in an air quality decision problem. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Fossil fuel is the major source of energy for all forms of motor vehicle, with gasoline and diesel fuels dominating our personal transport. Although biofuels have been used to inject some renewable energy into the transport system, imports of oil and gas to Europe, the USA and Japan continue to rise. A move to reduce energy consumption and carbon emissions by driving more efficient vehicles is therefore necessary. This paper considers a shift to reduced friction hydrogen electric vehicles that give three major benefits: (i) sourcing hydrogen from low carbon sources like wind, biomass, nuclear and solar; (ii) using an electric drivetrain to minimize energy conversion to heat; and (iii) reducing resistances to motion to give lower energy requirements for traction. This energy dissipation due to friction proves to be a complex mixture of tyre losses, brake adhesion, wind resistance, fuel conversion inefficiency, motor resistance, drivetrain losses, auxiliary power consumption and so on. By considering the addition of many loss terms, it is shown that the energy dissipation in fuel cell-powered vehicles resolves into a linear function of vehicle weight. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The ash plume of the Icelandic volcano Eyjafjallajökull covering Europe in April and May 2010 has notably attracted the interest of atmospheric researchers. Emission, transport, and deposition of the volcanic ash are simulated with the regional chemistry-transport model COSMO–MUSCAT. Key input parameters for transport models are the ash injection height, which controls the ash layer height during long-range transport, and the initial particle size distribution, which influences the sedimentation velocity. For each model layer, relative release rates are parameterised using stereo-derived plume heights from NASA’s space-borne Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer (MISR) observations near the source. With this model setup the ash is emitted at several levels beneath the maximum plume heights reported by the Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC) London. The initial particle size distribution used in COSMO–MUSCAT is derived from airborne in-situ measurements. In addition, the impact of different injection heights on the vertical distribution of the volcanic ash plume over Europe is shown. Ash emissions at specific control levels allow to assess the relative contribution of each layer to the spatial distribution after transport. The model results are compared to aerosol optical depths from European Sun photometer sites, lidar profiles measured over Leipzig/Germany, and ground-based microphysical measurements from several German air quality stations. In particular the good agreement between modelled vertical profiles of volcanic ash and lidar observations indicates that using the MISR stereo-height retrievals to characterize atmospheric ash input provide an alternative to injection height models in case of lacking information on eruption dynamics. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The author reflects on the Low-carbon Roadmap and the Energy Roadmap 2050 of the European Commission for green economy. The author asserts that the approaches make impressive cases for the green growth agenda but reservations against a power sector completely based upon renewables are flawed. He suggests that political and institutional factors might have influenced the assumptions and methodological choices for greening the economy.

HFC-1234yf (2,3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene) is under discussion for replacing HFC-134a (1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane) as a cooling agent in mobile air conditioners (MACs) in the European vehicle fleet. Some HFC-1234yf will be released into the atmosphere, where it is almost completely transformed to the persistent trifluoroacetic acid (TFA). Future emissions of HFC-1234yf after a complete conversion of the European vehicle fleet were assessed. Taking current day leakage rates and predicted vehicle numbers for the year 2020 into account, European total HFC-1234yf emissions from MACs were predicted to range between 11.0 and 19.2 Gg yr-1. Resulting TFA deposition rates and rainwater concentrations over Europe were assessed with two Lagrangian chemistry transport models. Mean European summer-time TFA mixing ratios of about 0.15 ppt (high emission scenario) will surpass previously measured levels in background air in Germany and Switzerland by more than a factor of 10. Mean deposition rates (wet + dry) of TFA were estimated to be 0.65-0.76 kg km-2 yr-1, with a maxium of ∼2.0 kg km-2 yr-1 occurring in Northern Italy. About 30-40% of the European HFC-1234yf emissions were deposited as TFA within Europe, while the remaining fraction was exported toward the Atlantic Ocean, Central Asia, Northern, and Tropical Africa. Largest annual mean TFA concentrations in rainwater were simulated over the Mediterranean and Northern Africa, reaching up to 2500 ng L-1, while maxima over the continent of about 2000 ng L-1 occurred in the Czech Republic and Southern Germany. These highest annual mean concentrations are at least 60 times lower than previously determined to be a safe level for the most sensitive aquatic life-forms. Rainwater concentrations during individual rain events would still be 1 order of magnitude lower than the no effect level. To verify these results future occasional sampling of TFA in the atmospheric environment should be considered. If future HFC-1234yf emissions surpass amounts used here studies of TFA accumulation in endorheic basins and other sensitive areas should be aspired. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This study explores a large set of OC and EC measurements in PM10 and PM2.5 aerosol samples, undertaken with a long term constant analytical methodology, to evaluate the capability of the OC/EC minimum ratio to represent the ratio between the OC and EC aerosol components resulting from fossil fuel combustion (OCff/ECff). The data set covers a wide geographical area in Europe, but with a particular focus upon Portugal, Spain and the United Kingdom, and includes a great variety of sites: urban (background, kerbside and tunnel), industrial, rural and remote. The highest minimum ratios were found in samples from remote and rural sites. Urban background sites have shown spatially and temporally consistent minimum ratios, of around 1.0 for PM10 and 0.7 for PM2.5.The consistency of results has suggested that the method could be used as a tool to derive the ratio between OC and EC from fossil fuel combustion and consequently to differentiate OC from primary and secondary sources. To explore this capability, OC and EC measurements were performed in a busy roadway tunnel in central Lisbon. The OC/EC ratio, which reflected the composition of vehicle combustion emissions, was in the range of 0.3–0.4. Ratios of OC/EC in roadside increment air (roadside minus urban background) in Birmingham, UK also lie within the range 0.3–0.4. Additional measurements were performed under heavy traffic conditions at two double kerbside sites located in the centre of Lisbon and Madrid. The OC/EC minimum ratios observed at both sites were found to be between those of the tunnel and those of urban background air, suggesting that minimum values commonly obtained for this parameter in open urban atmospheres over-predict the direct emissions of OCff from road transport. Possible reasons for this discrepancy are explored. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of specific emission control measures on the air quality of urban centres and local area hotspots. In order to achieve this, a sequence of regional, urban and local scale models was applied to assess the impact of European emission control strategies on urban and local scale air quality. First, vehicle fleet and activity data were estimated using appropriate models. The results of these models were used as input to the COPERT model in order to estimate vehicle emissions (NO2 and PM10) at country level up to the year 2030. Vehicle emissions were calculated according to two different scenarios: A baseline scenario, CLE (Current LEgislation) and an optimistic alternative, MFR (Maximum Feasible Reductions). Urban background and traffic hotspot concentrations of air pollutants were then calculated using the OFIS (Ozone FIne Structure) and OSPM (Operational Street Pollution Model) models respectively for 20 cities in Europe and for particular types of streets. Air quality was found to improve in 2030 compared to the reference year 2000, in line with the stricter NOx and PM vehicle emission limits imposed. The NO2 street increments for narrow canyons estimated for the reference year were found to be in the range of 16–53 μg m−3, depending on the city considered. These were reduced to 14–36 μg m−3 in the CLE scenario and 7–24 μg m−3 in the MFR scenario. The corresponding range for PM10 was estimated to be 5–15 μg m−3 for the reference year and was reduced to 2–8 μg m−3 and 0.2–2.4 μg m−3 for the CLE and the MFR scenarios respectively. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This article compares several configurations of a border adjustment (BA) to the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) that are designed to maximize their World Trade Organisation (WTO) compatibility, either with the GATT general regime or with Article XX (its environmental exception rule). The different BAs are assessed quantitatively using the partial equilibrium model CASE II, which represents four sectors included in the EU ETS (cement, aluminium, steel and electricity). The main findings indicate that the inclusion of imports and exports would reduce world emissions more than the inclusion of imports alone, that an obligation to buy EU allowances is more compatible with WTO rules than one based on a tax, and would be better at reducing world emissions. Moreover, if the BA is based on best available technologies, more precisely on the recently defined EU product-specific benchmarks, then the adjustment would only be partial and carbon leakage would nevertheless be significantly reduced. The popular view that a BA contributes to both carbon leakage limitation and to domestic production preservation is discussed, and it is argued on the contrary that although a BA would efficiently limit leakage, a decrease in European production of GHG-intensive products is to be expected. Industries that consume cement, aluminium and steel would pay more for these goods with a BA. Consequently, the price signal should be preserved and diffused in downstream sectors, an expected key result of climate policy. On the contrary, free allocation efficiently preserves domestic production, but does not preserve and diffuse the price signal and is less efficient in limiting leakage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The EMEP/EEA guidebook 2009 for agricultural emission inventories reports average ammonia (NH3) emission factors (EF) by volatilisation of 55% of the applied total ammoniacal nitrogen (TAN) content for cattle slurry, and 35% losses for pig slurry, irrespective of the type of surface or slurry characteristics such as dry matter content and pH. In this review article, we compiled over 350 measurements of EFs published between 1991 and 2011. The standard slurry application technique during the early years of this period, when a large number of measurements were made, was spreading by splash plate, and as a result reference EFs given in many European inventories are predominantly based on this technique. However, slurry application practices have evolved since then, while there has also been a shift in measurement techniques and investigated plot sizes. We therefore classified the available measurements according to the flux measurement technique, measurement plot size, the year of measurement, and the year of publication. Medium size plots (usually circles between 20 to 50 m radius) generally yielded the highest EFs. The most commonly used measurement setups at this scale were based on the Integrated Horizontal Flux method (IHF or the ZINST method (a simplified IHF method)). Several empirical models were published in the years 1993 to 2003 predicting NH3 EFs as a function of meteorology and slurry characteristics (Menzi et al., 1998; Søgaard et al., 2002). More recent measurements that appeared subsequently show substantially lower EFs, and appear to indicate a need for a revision of the EF in emission inventories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]