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The article focuses on the fertility transition in Ireland during 1880-1911. The decline in Irish marital fertility was neither uniform nor universal. Between 1881 and 1911, there were increases in Counties Galway, Mayo, Roscommon and Donegal, while the decline in several other counties was small. Cohort parity analysis (CPA), a fertility measure devised by researcher Paul David and his research associates, provides a means of inferring the extent and timing of birth control within marriage from distributions of married women by number of children born. A key aspect of CPA is the extent to which married couples resort to contraception in order to "space" births. Ireland has played an important part in the development of CPA, because David and his colleagues believe that the rural Irish of 1911 provide a suitable model, not only for urban Ireland in 1911 and the United States around the turn of the century, but also for Western Europe, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, from the mid-nineteenth through the early twentieth centuries.

This article highlights the second European Management Control Symposium with the general theme "Organizations and Control: Theory and Practice," held from July 9-11, 1992 at the HEC School of Management in Versailles, France. The participants for the forum numbered around 100, with representatives from European countries, USA, Canada and Australia. The conference started with a plenary keynote address delivered by Michel Fiol of the HEC School of Management. This was followed by parallel sessions.

The Utility PhotoVoltaic Group (UPVG) is a non-profit organization of nearly 100 energy service providers that was formed to accelerate the commercialization of photovoltaics (PV). The US Department of Energy (DOE) provides funding support for many of the UPVG's activities and programs. The UPVG manages the TEAM-UPprogram, which is a partnership between the electric utility industry and the US DOE that provides cost-sharing to competitively selected business ventures that deploy PV systems. Currently over 400 individual installations, totalling more than 275 MW, have been installed under rounds One, Two, and Three of the TEAM-UPprogram. One goal of TEAM-UPis to disseminate information collected from these ventures to utilities, energy service providers, and the solar community. This paper describes the UPVG, the TEAM-UPprogram and identifies lessons learned at this stage of the program. Actual performance data from selected PV systems is displayed on the UPVG web page: www.upvg.org. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Curious about the geographical distribution of publications in reproductive medicine, we compared the numbers of publications in Human Reproduction (HR) and Fertility and Sterility (F&S). The annual number of publications from the individual countries was obtained by searching the Medline database using the internet provider PubMed. The data were analysed and normalized to population size, gross domestic product (GDP) and total number of Medline publications. The 8511 publications of both journals in the 1990s came from 56 countries. The number of publications per year was increasing in HR and remained constant in F&S. In absolute numbers, the UK produced the most publications in HR (21%) and the USA in F&S (45%) as well as in both journals together (28%). Relatively, Israel was the most productive country per million inhabitants (8.4 +/- 2.1 publications/year), per billion US dollars GDP (0.85 +/- 0.21 publications/year) and per 1000 Medline publications (15 +/- 4 publications/year). Europe was the most productive world region in absolute numbers (54%) and Australia/New Zealand in relative numbers per million inhabitants and per 1000 billion US dollars GDP. Almost 87% of all publications in HR and F&S came from the 18 countries with a GDP per capita of >10 000 US dollars. In conclusion, the geographical distribution of publications in HR and F&S follows the pattern of the distribution of publications in general biomedical research. Most publications come from affluent countries. Although the USA and the UK appear to be the most productive countries in absolute numbers, smaller affluent countries like Israel and Belgium are more productive when the numbers are normalized to population or GDP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The extreme variability of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) makes it possible to conduct transmission studies on the basis of genetic analysis and to trace global and local patterns in the spread of the virus. Two such patterns are discussed in this paper. First, in many European countries (e.g., Scotland and Germany), homosexual men tend to be infected with a subtly different variant of HIV-1 than intravenous drug users. In other European countries (e.g., Norway and Sweden), a distinction is also found between the two risk groups; but based on available data, the distinction is a different one. The second pattern is a worldwide tendency for homosexual men in many different geographic regions around the world to carry HIV-1 subtype B, the variant that is most prevalent in the Americas, Europe, and Australia. In contrast, people infected via other routes (mostly heterosexual contact) in those same countries carry a mixture of other subtypes. Biologic differences between the viruses infecting different risk groups have not been found; the most likely explanation for the findings is different epidemiologic patterns. Although data are still scarce, the authors attempt to use these patterns in the reconstruction of the worldwide spread of the HIV epidemic. Am J Epidemiol 2000;152:814–22. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper examines empirically whether more stringent domestic environmental policies reduce the international competitiveness of environmentally sensitive goods (ESGs). Our time series evidence indicates that there are no systematic changes in trade patterns of ESGs in thelast three decades, despite the introduction of more stringent environmental regulations in most of the developed countries in the 1970s and 1980s. This observed phenomenon is then subjected to a multi-country econometric test using an extended gravity-equation framework. The test suggests that, overall, more stringent environmental regulations do not reduce total exports, exports of ESGs and exports of non-resource-based ESGs. Neither was there any evidence to support the hypothesis that new trade barriers emerge to offset the effects of more stringent environmental regulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article compares the archaeological record and models of colonization among the U.S., Europe and Australia. It presents a comparison systematically, considering the implications of interregional differences in greater detail in terms of both the accumulated archaeological record and current models of colonization. The North America and Australia have no systematically gathered all-encompassing databases of dated archeological sites and list of dates sites is gathered from general literature reviews. Europe has a very large database of archaeological sites and dates from the late Quaternary and is unlikely that all of them have been discussed with the same care as those in America and Australia because many sites and dates have been found there.

The purpose of our study was to compare various aspects of radiology training schemes in ten countries. A questionnaire was sent to senior residents in the UK, USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Italy, Egypt, India, Malaysia and Greece. The questions concerned length of training, required pre-training experience, the organization of the training scheme, teaching, resources, stages at which residents can independently perform and report examinations, fellowships, and progression to jobs. A wide variety of training, ranging from highly scheduled programs with detailed aims and objectives, to self-learning occurs across the world. Examinations and assessments are also variable. There are lessons to be learned from varying practices; more exchanges of ideas should be encouraged. In view of the "internationalization" of radiology services and the variation in training styles an international qualification for quality assurance purposes may be desirable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article casts the Spalding world baseball tour of 1888–1889 in a context of the campaign to construct a national identity during the late 19th century. In doing so, it intends to show how baseball magnate Albert Spalding and fellow sporting missionaries used cultural perspectives promoted on the tour to assert baseball's national purpose and, through the sport, stake America's claim in the Anglo-Saxon imperium of the times. Spalding initiated the mission with a remarkable tourist venture that spanned the globe, from Chicago across the Pacific and through Europe before returning from overseas. In New York, at a famous reception at Delmonico's restaurant, the tourists and commentators imbued the sport with the rhetoric of nationalism so critical to constructing empire ten years later. The banquet serves as the window in which to look on parts of the tour, particularly the contrasting results of the visits to Australia and Britain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The pharmaceutical sector is unusual amongst global regulated industries inasmuch as it is usually forbidden from advertising to the users of its products. This paper reports on research updating my 2003 review 2 of the evidence and arguments for and against the direct-to-consumer advertising (DTCA) of prescription drugs. It not only covers the two countries where significant DTCA is permitted (USA and New Zealand), but also the administrations in which there is active discussion of possibilities to ease or amend some of the current restrictions (Europe, Australia and Canada). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Autonomy can be defined as independence or freedom. When it is used to describe individual work, it refers to the ability to make decisions without undue influence from others. The purpose of this paper is to critique two models of autonomy, one developed from the discipline of occupational health, and one developed from the discipline of nursing. These models potentially provide insight to the work of nurses in hospitals. Additionally, this paper will explore the possibility of applying these traditional western models to cultures and countries other than the US, Europe, and Australia. The question of whether a hospital nurse can be autonomous is complicated by the structure of the society in which the work of the nurse exists and the barriers produced by those structures. In order for nurses and women to exercise more autonomy in work settings, powerful members of the society must acknowledge the reality of the under valued status of women and women's work and allow for a greater exercise of discretion by women. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article announces the launching of the "Education for Chemical Engineers" (ECE), an online journal from the Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE), with the aim of becoming the principal international journal for chemical, process and biomolecular engineering education. ECE has been declared the official journal of the European Federation of Chemical Engineering. Doctor David Shallcross of the University of Melbourne, Australia, is the editor of the journal supported by an international editorial board. The journal has already established a global subscriber base and published papers from Europe, Australasia, and North America.

The practice of deliberately concealing garments within the structure of buildings is described. These finds provide a means of exploring how space was conceived and experienced in the past, and how these deliberately hidden garments mediated, and continue to mediate, the relationship between people and the spaces they occupied, and may continue to occupy. The Deliberately Concealed Garments Project was set up in 1998 to locate, document and analyze garments found hidden within buildings. Concealments have preserved many textiles in the UK, mainland Europe, Australia and North America. The significance of these caches rests not only in the finds themselves, as rare items of dress, but also because of what they reveal about perceptions of built space. The concealments are believed to serve a protective function, not against the weather or immodesty, but against incoming malevolent forces. As apotropaic (evil-averting) agents they protect from within rather than as outer coverings or internal divisions. The paper discusses how garments concealed within buildings transform space through the work of metaphor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The previous papers of this issue discuss the views teachers from the United States, Australia, Hong Kong SAR, and Mainland China have on effective mathematics teaching and learning. Similarities and differences are found and a differentiation from West to East can be worked out in the order of the regions as listed above. The picture of teachers' views can, however, be differentiated when they are looked at from a European perspective. On the basis of the analysis of two comparative studies on teaching cultures in three European countries and a questioning of teachers, this commentary therefore locates France, Germany, and England within this framework so that the East-West-contrast is distinguished in more detail. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To systematically review and critically appraise the economic evaluations of one to one interventions to reduce sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and teenage conceptions. Design: Systematic review. Data Sources: Search of four electronic bibliographic databases from 1990 to January 2006. Search keywords included teenage, pregnancy, adolescent, unplanned, unwanted, cost benefit, cost utility, economic evaluation, cost effectiveness and all terms for STIs, including specific diseases. Review Methods: We included studies that evaluated a broad range of one to one interventions to reduce STIs. Outcomes included major outcomes averted, life years and quality adjusted life years (QALY). All studies were assessed against quality criteria. Results: Of 3,190 identified papers, 55 were included. The majority of studies found one to one interventions to be either cost saving or cost effective, although one highlighted the need to target the population to receive post-exposure prophylaxis to reduce transmission of HIV. Most studies used a static approach that ignores the potential re-infection of treated patients. Conclusion: One to one interventions have been shown to be cost saving or cost effective but there are some limitations in applying this evidence to the UK policy context. More UK research using dynamic modelling approaches and QALYs would provide improved evidence, enabling more robust policy recommendations to be made about which one to one interventions are cost effective in reducing STIs in the UK setting. The results of this review can be used by policy makers, health economists and researchers considering further research in this area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a discussion relating to public policy and management programs in Canada, Europe, Australia, and New Zealand, which are compared with similar programs in the U.S. It was inferred that the comparing programs raises important questions as to whether developments within countries and across countries have been successful in creating education and training offerings that are fit for purpose. According to the author, the study of public policy programs indicates that there are several challenges ahead in terms of making good decisions on the form and content of programs that would add value to governments and citizens. Furthermore, the complexity of policy environments has major implications for the design and delivery of education and training programs in policy analysis.

In keeping with the pre-eminent status accorded autonomy within Australia, Europe, and the United States, medical practice requires that patients authorize do-not-resuscitate (DNR) orders, intended to countermand the default practice in hospitals of instituting cardiopulmonary-resuscitation (CPR) on all patients experiencing cardio-pulmonary arrest. As patients typically do not make these decisions proactively, however, family members are often asked to act as surrogate decision-makers and decide on the patient's behalf. Although the appropriateness of patients or their families having to decide about the provision of CPR has been challenged, there has been little examination of how patients and their families talk about and negotiate such decisions, particularly in the context of the patient's imminent death. In this article, part of a larger study analysing interviews with 28 patients (13 female) with cancer within weeks of their death, and 20 others (predominantly family) attending, we argue that a common assumption underpinning participants' talk about the DNR decision (i.e. forgoing CPR) is that it requires a choice between life and death. Using illustrative examples, we demonstrate that in making decisions about CPR, patients and their families are implicitly required to make moral judgements about the value of the patient's life, including their relationships with significant others. We identify some implications of these empirical observations for the development of ethically appropriate policies and practices regarding patient autonomy and surrogacy at the end of life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Europe lags far behind Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the USA in terms of implementing regulatory procedures for the import and release of invertebrate biological control agents (IBCAs). A number of standards, documents and guidelines have been produced over recent years in an attempt to harmonize regulation of IBCA introduction into Europe. Despite these efforts, the number of member countries implementing any form of IBCA regulation remains low, with many industries, biological practitioners and regulators fearing that a regulatory system would render the process of approval for IBCA introduction into a country costly and time consuming. Europe’s priority is therefore to formulate a regulatory system that will be readily approved of and adopted by all member countries. In this paper we review the current regulatory processes operating in Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the USA. There is potential for Europe to benefit from the years of experience that these countries have in IBCA regulation. We therefore propose recommendations based on features of the regulatory processes in each of the four countries that work well and that could be adopted to generate a workable Europe-wide regulatory system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article continues from an earlier paper that examined Australian laws regulating the use of preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) for the purpose of what the author has tentatively termed 'negative enhancement' to develop that analysis to include an examination of similar laws in the UK and Europe. The term 'negative enhancement' is used to describe those instances where individuals seek to use PGD to achieve outcomes that, commonly, are socially not preferred. In a recent survey by the Genetics and Public Policy Centre, it was found that 3% of IVF-PGD clinics in the United States reported having provided PGD to couples who seek to select an embryo for the presence of a particular disease or disability, such as deafness, in order that the child share the characteristic with the parents. The idea of 'negative enhancement' is, therefore, both a paradox and a useful means to describe the hidden assumptions behind claims that enhancement technologies can only lead us in one direction -- towards a race of blond, blue-eyed, able-bodied, intellectually magnificent and athletically superior beings. In Australia there does appear to be a legal (if not ethical) consensus that PGD should only be used to select against serious disability. In the UK under the Human Fertilization and Embryology Act (1990) to test using PGD, there must be a significant risk of a serious physical/mental disability/illness/medical condition implying that choosing in favour of a disability would not be acceptable. The proposed amendments to the Human Fertilisation and EmbryologyAct currently before the House of Lords contain an explicit prohibition on the use of PGD to select in favour of a disability. In Europe, the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, 2000 O.J. (C 364) 1 (December 7, 2000) explicitly prohibits eugenic practices in Article 3(2) but there is uncertainty with respect to how that will be interpreted in relation to disability. Specific regulation of PGD exists in a number of European countries but prohibitions and limits vary across the states. This paper will map out these differences and address the question of whether selection in favour of a disability using PGD is allowed in these jurisdictions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper focuses on the issue of separate schooling. Diverse societies use schools to develop shared value systems, strengthen democratic engagements and provide better educational outcomes. However, in Europe, the United States, Australia and elsewhere groups of parents and communities have been invoking human rights claims to challenge the state, often successfully, to demand separate schools for their children or the right to send their children to a school of their choosing, irrespective of the consequences for society at large. Yet do such separate schools reflect an increased respect for the rights of minorities and a commitment to help them reach their full potential? Do they help remove marginalization and can they ever lead to the establishment of stable and peaceable communities? Or do they undermine societal commitments to intergroup harmony and perpetuate stereotypes, racism and ethnocentric thinking? Do they keep existing inequalities in place and deny young people the opportunities they need to become full-fledged members of society? It is argued here that regardless of location, separate schools are part of the problem, not the solution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reports on the review and meta-analysis of the effectiveness of management interventions for the control of Spartina species. The Spartina species or cordgrasses have been introduced to the estuaries around Europe, U.S., Australia, Asia, and New Zealand as a coastal management tool to stabilize mud banks, and through accidental introductions. These species are highly-aggressive in their new environment, and become the predominant plant species which displaces native flora and fauna. The results of the analysis show the need to establish targeted control programs which are dependent upon the spartina spp.

In many parts of the world, higher education is viewed as a prime 'motor' for the development of a knowledge-based economy. Under the banner of this 'new economy', higher education policies, programmes and practices have been increasingly co-opted and shaped by wider geo-strategic political and economic interests. This paper explores three, interlinked, higher education policy spaces - in Europe, the United States, and Australia. It explores how the growing range of educational initiatives at the European level has affected - both directly and indirectly - American and Australian policymaking in higher education. The European higher education project, which is increasingly perceived as having some significance to the global economy, has set off a series of dynamic reactions in both Australia and the United States, which is leading to multiple new logics and new imaginaries about the global higher education landscape. Through this, a more integrated and relational global system of higher education is emerging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is much discussion concerning the question whether Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) is a sustainable climate change mitigation option. An even more debated topic is currently whether it is affordable and economically viable on the long term. Different legal frameworks at different levels around the globe seek to provide incentives for CCS technology. This article focuses on two core aspects of economic viability, more specifically financial incentives and transparent handling of liability, and how they are dealt with at the European Union level in the CCS proposal. This approach is compared with the approaches chosen in Australia and the USA. It seems that, at all levels, more efforts are needed to make CCS viable on the long term. Core elements to succeed are transparency and pragmatism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article looks at the status of urology training in India and its comparison with the U.S., Europe and Australia. It notes that urology training takes three years to finish but training centers lack standardized curriculum. The author adds that there is no formal subspecialty fellowship training in the country while training programs lack emphasis on research. Urological students in the U.S. undergo training for four years while the Surgical Education and Training course of the Urological Society of Australia and New Zealand takes six years.

We review the development and success of fish stock recovery plans in the United States, Australia, New Zealand, and Europe. A range of multi-disciplinary factors that have been associated with successful stock recovery were evaluated for 33 case studies. Each factor was assessed and scored based on the best available information to indicate its relative importance in the overall process leading to stock recovery. The results showed that rapid and often large reductions in catches at the start of the recovery process, and biological characteristics such as the life history strategies of species and the demographic composition of the stock, played a key role in the ability of populations to recover. Although the latter cannot be controlled directly by human intervention, they should be used to inform the management process and set appropriate levels of exploitation through a set of harvest control rules. Recovery is more effective when the recovery plan is part of a legal mandate, which is automatically triggered on reaching pre-defined limit reference points. Of the four regions studied, the United States was the only country to have a legal framework within which clear guidelines are given to establish a recovery process within a pre-defined time period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AbstractThe harm associated with high-risk injected opiate use and the threat of the HIV epidemic among injecting drug users has become a worldwide problem. Twenty years ago, in the face of a rapid increase in mortality rates among injecting drug users and the upcoming threat of HIV, the first harm-reduction programs were implemented in the Western world. This paper is a literature review describing four forms of harm reduction currently in use in Europe, North America, and Australia. Each represents a reasonable counterapproach to the threat of increased prevalence of HIV among injecting drug users in transitional and developing countries. The paper attempts to explain the concepts behind the most commonly used types of harm reduction and provides a brief overview of the advantages and disadvantages of each and the reasons for their implementation. The main focus of the review is on the definition and the practical aspects of harm reduction; it includes a brief introduction of Chinese harm-reduction efforts and their implications.Acta Pharmacologica Sinica (2009) 30: 513–521; doi: 10.1038/aps.2009.30; published online 6th April 2009 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes the effects of ATM surcharges on deployment and welfare, in a model where banks compete for ATM and banking services. Foreign fees, surcharges and the interchange fee are endogenously determined. We find situations in which surcharges are welfare enhancing. Under strategic fee setting, the increase in deployment caused by surcharging might compensate the surplus loss caused by the increase in prices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Third parties are now playing a key role in the processes leading to the grant, and validation, of patents. This article looks at the key differences between three systems of third-party challenge, which have the common goal of providing patentees and their competitors with a forum, other than the courts, where issues of patent validity may be challenged and resolved. Those systems are post-grant opposition before the European Patent Office, pre-grant opposition in Australia and re-examination in the United States. Various aspects of the systems are looked at, including an overview of the procedures, avenues of appeal and statistics on their use. Insufficient empirical evidence is available to permit a comprehensive assessment of which system is the most effective; however, the data available do allow some conclusions to be drawn—including the suggestion that one reason for the differences in levels of use of the three systems may be the perceptions of US Patent and Trademark Office examiners and the culture that has built up within the US patent attorney profession. The degree of divergence in the three systems further indicates that more work needs to be carried out if reforms to the procedures are to be based on need rather than supposition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to investigate the strategic profiles and differences across globally leading business schools. Design/methodology/approach - This paper used the concepts of strategic group identity and domain consensus to examine the differences across the business schools. Cluster analysis is applied to identify strategic groups among 82 global schools from the USA, Canada, Europe, Asia and Australia. Findings - Ten strategic groups - essentially similar strategic "clusters" - are identified by the clustering analysis. The results demonstrate that the groups do have different resource and reputation profiles. Research limitations/implications - Future research can improve the research base by collecting data on financial variables such as endowments, providing metrics by which a school's efficiency can be assessed, or collecting longitudinal data. Furthermore, a form of cognitive strategic mapping could be achieved through survey and interview mechanisms in order to highlight the perspectives of deans and senior managers of business schools. Originality/value - This research contributes to the literature in two aspects. First, this research provides a clear mapping of the strategic "bands" across globally branded business schools. The results are highly timely in today's debate about the nature and future of business schools. Second, this research demonstrates that strategic group theory can be applied in the business school context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When it comes to sustainability, improving existing buildings is arguably more important than developing better new facilities. But that can be more difficult because it requires cooperation between owners and tenants. Fortunately, owners are finding ways to cooperate thru green leasing, incentives, and educational programs. This paper presents eight examples from the United States, Europe, and Australia. They demonstrate that property firms can work with new and existing tenants toward greater cooperation around sustainable real estate concerns. Transformation to sustainable property investing will be a "sociotechnical" process. It will require technical skill to improve eco-efficiency, but also new social capabilities that facilitate cooperation among owners and their tenants. Fortunately, the cases presented illustrate ways this can be done. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines international patent application decisions of nine agricultural biotechnology firms from 1990–2000 in Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, the European Patent Office, Japan and South Africa. The data reveal a low frequency of international applications despite an initial United States' application, indicating very low values for patents abroad. The results indicate that invention quality plays an important role in firms' decisions to patent abroad and that a single international application is a good predictor of multiple international applications. Further, significant country fixed effects suggest wide differences in business climates and patent enforcement among countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is a core element in Richard Florida's popular theory on growth to be able to attract the creative class to a geographical area. But Florida is not very specific on which kind of amenities are important for attracting and keeping the creative class. The purpose of this paper is to analyse which kind of cultural activities the creative class is actually using. Which kind of cultural activities does the creative class use more intensively than other groups in society? This paper presents new empirical results on preferences for leisure and culture. Richard Florida's theory can be, and has been, criticised - especially on the issue of causality. The analyses presented in this paper show that being part of the creative class has an independent and significant role in explaining preferences for leisure and culture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The authors reflect on the issue of job quality. Particular focus is given to debates about the issue during the last half of the 20th century. The authors note the re-emergence of good jobs into the policy agenda of U.S. and European governments during the 1990s and early 2000s to create knowledge-driven and creative economies. They point out that quality of work is an important policy focus amid increasing employment participation rates in Australia.

The article reports on the conference "Der Kult des großen Plans um 1910: Gestaltung von Metropolen in historischer Perspektive," held on November 25-26, 2010, at the Technical University of Berlin, Germany. The conference discussed philosophies and standards of urban planning in the early 20th century in cross-cultural perspective, with papers focusing on various cities, including Chicago, Illinois, Vienna, Austria, and Canberra, Australia.

This paper provides an update of a previous review ' Red Meat in the Diet' published in the Nutrition Bulletin in 2005. An update on red meat consumption levels in the UK and other countries is provided, and a summary of the nutritional content of red meat in the diet is given. Current evidence on dietary and lifestyle factors associated with red meat consumption and the effects of red meat intake on health and chronic disease outcomes are discussed. As there is now continued debate about the environmental impact of different aspects of our diet, sustainability issues regarding red meat were also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was designed to conduct systematic reviews of existing evaporative cooling system maintenance guidelines and of published Legionnaires' disease outbreaks to determine what, if any, maintenance practices were in place at the time of the disease outbreaks and then to contrast the reported practices with the published guidelines for evaporative cooling systems. For the first review, similarities in the reported recommendations were assessed; in the second review, any reported information about the state of the evaporative cooling system during the outbreak investigation was summarized. The systematic reviews yielded 38 current guidelines for evaporative cooling systems and 38 published outbreak investigations. The guidelines varied regarding the recommended type and dose of biocides, frequency of general inspections and total system maintenance, the preferred disinfection and cleaning procedures when testing a system for microbiological contamination, the type and frequency of testing procedures, and interpretation of test results. Overall, the maintenance guidelines did not contain sufficiently detailed procedures to prevent the problems that were observed in the outbreak investigations. These maintenance procedures included lack or improper use of a biocide; infrequent testing for microbiological contamination; improper use or maintenance of drift eliminators; and lack of a total system cleaning within 6 months of the outbreak for cooling systems that were either under continuous use, recently started up, or frequently switched on and off. This study suggests that more specific and standardized maintenance guidelines for the control of Legionella bacteria are needed and that these guidelines must be properly implemented to help reduce further Legionnaires' disease outbreaks associated with evaporative cooling systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Aims To investigate whether differences in gender-income equity at country level explain national differences in the links between alcohol use, and the combination of motherhood and paid labour. Design Cross-sectional data in 16 established market economies participating in the Gender, Alcohol and Culture: An International Study (GenACIS) study. Setting Population surveys. Participants A total of 12 454 mothers (aged 25-49 years). Measurements Alcohol use was assessed as the quantity per drinking day. Paid labour, having a partner, gender-income ratio at country level and the interaction between individual and country characteristics were regressed on alcohol consumed per drinking day using multi-level modelling. Findings Mothers with a partner who were in paid labour reported consuming more alcohol on drinking days than partnered housewives. In countries with high gender-income equity, mothers with a partner who were in paid labour drank less alcohol per occasion, while alcohol use was higher among working partnered mothers living in countries with lower income equity. Conclusion In countries which facilitate working mothers, daily alcohol use decreases as female social roles increase; in contrast, in countries where there are fewer incentives for mothers to remain in work, the protective effect of being a working mother (with partner) on alcohol use is weaker. These data suggest that a country's investment in measures to improve the compatibility of motherhood and paid labour may reduce women's alcohol use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A revised framework for the regulation of in vitro diagnostic devices (IVDs) came into force in Australia on July 1, 2010 that aims to 'ensure that public and personal health are adequately protected', but which instead may lead to adverse outcomes in clinical diagnosis and management. The regulatory process aims to regulate all IVDs, including those used by clinical diagnostic laboratories, which are already subject to scrutiny as part of the current laboratory accreditation process. The IVD regulatory process initiated in Australia is similar to that used in Canada, but different to that currently operating in the USA and Europe. However, it is feasible that other countries will in time adopt a similar regulatory framework, given that many countries are involved in the development process. In this opinion paper, the regulatory process for IVDs across several geographies are outlined, as are some benefits and weaknesses of the new regulatory process now applied to Australia, as potentially planned for other regions of the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Active transport policies are being developed across Europe designed to have health and environmental benefits. There is little evidence of impact on physical activity of active transport strategies which modify the built environment. Cycling represents one virtually carbon-neutral form of transport that can help to address declining levels of exercise. Methods: A systematic literature review of experimental or observational studies that objectively evaluated the effect of the built environment on cycling. Results: A total of 21 studies met the inclusion criteria, all of which were observational studies. Eleven studies identified objectively measured environmental factors with a significant positive association with cycling. The environmental factors identified as being positively associated with cycling included presence of dedicated cycle routes or paths, separation of cycling from other traffic, high population density, short trip distance, proximity of a cycle path or green space and for children projects promoting ‘safe routes to school’. Negative environmental factors were perceived and objective traffic danger, long trip distance, steep inclines and distance from cycle paths. Of the seven studies which focused primarily on the impact of cycle routes, four demonstrated a statistically significant positive association. Conclusion: Although the study identified environmental factors with positive and negative associations with cycling behaviour, many other types of environmental policies and interventions have yet to be rigorously evaluated. Policies promoting cycle lane construction appear promising but the socio-demographic distribution of their effects on physical activity is unclear. The wider impact of active transport policies on health and inequalities across Europe must be explored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

mcinnes e., seers k. & tutton l. (2011) Older people's views in relation to risk of falling and need for intervention: a meta-ethnography. Journal of Advanced Nursing 67(12), 2525-2536. Abstract Aim. This paper is a report of a meta-ethnography of qualitative studies of older peoples' views on risk of falling and need for intervention. Background. Falls and falls-related injuries in older people are worldwide problems. A conceptual understanding of older people's views about falls risk and need for intervention is useful for understanding factors likely to impact on acceptance of risk and recommended interventions. Data Sources. Seven electronic databases were searched 1999-2009. Reference lists of included articles were screened for eligible papers. Review Methods. Assessment of quality was carried out. Themes and concepts were extracted using a meta-ethnographic approach to compare similarities and differences across the retrieved studies. A line of argument was developed to produce an explanatory framework of the extracted themes and concepts. Results. Eleven relevant qualitative research articles of reasonable quality were identified. Six key concepts were identified: beyond personal control; rationalizing; salience; life-change and identity; taking control and self-management. A line of argument synthesis describes how older people approach self-appraisal of falls risk and intervention need, and how they cope and adapt to falls risk and intervention need. Conclusion. In response to having an elevated risk status and perceived associations with frailty and impact on an independent life-style, some prefer to adapt to this reality by taking control and implementing self-management strategies. Healthcare professionals should take into account beliefs about risk and negotiate choices for intervention, recognizing that some individuals prefer to drive the decision-making process to preserve identity as a competent and independent person. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

palacios-ceña d., losa-iglesias m.e., álvarez-lópez c., cachón-pérez m., reyes r.a.r., salvadores-fuentes p. & fernández-de-las-peñas c. (2011) Patients, intimate partners and family experiences of implantable cardioverter defibrillators: qualitative systematic review. Journal of Advanced Nursing 67(12), 2537-2550. Abstract Aim. This paper is a report of an interpretive review of qualitative research on how an implantable cardioverter defibrillator affects adult recipients and their significant others. Background. An implantable cardioverter defibrillator detects pathological cardiac rhythms and automatically converts the rhythm with electrical counter shocks. Data sources. A systematic literature search was conducted for qualitative research papers published between January 1999 and January 2009. PubMed, Medline, ISI Web of Knowledge and CINAHL databases were searched with the following key words: internal defibrillator, implantable defibrillator and qualitative research. Review Methods. Twenty-two papers were included. The Critical Appraisal Skills Programme and Prompts were used to appraise studies. Thematic analysis and synthesis approaches were used to interpret evidence. Findings. People with an implantable cardioverter defibrillator were found to experience physical, psychological and social changes. Shocks produce fear and anxiety, affecting relationships and sexual relations. The use of support groups and the use of the Internet are important in helping adjustment to an implantable cardioverter defibrillator. Women's responses to an implantable cardioverter defibrillator appear different than men's responses and include concerns about physical appearance and relationship issues. Postdischarge follow-up and educational programmes are still underdeveloped. Conclusion. Patients need additional education, support and follow-up care after hospital discharge. Patients and significant others benefit from collaboration between patient associations and healthcare professional societies. Future research is needed to identify the specific challenges that women recipients face. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Today, Bosnians represent one of the newly emerging and the most widely dispersed diasporic communities from the Balkans. There are large communities of Bosnians living in almost every European country, as well as throughout North America and Australia. Most were displaced during the 1992-1995 Bosnian war, in which 2.2 million people were forced to leave their homes, 1.6 million of whom looked for refuge abroad. In contrast with, and in response to, the enforced displacement, many members of the Bosnian diaspora have retained strong family and other 'informal' social ties with both Bosnians in other countries and those still living in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH, or Bosnia). Such ties - focused on preservation of cultural memory and performance of distinct local identities - form the basis of the global network of the Bosnian diaspora and its link with the original home (land). In this paper, I briefly outline the links and networks that constitute diaspora, and then go on to explore the extent to which recent scholarly literature is able to 'capture' the uniqueness and complexity of the Bosnian diasporic communities in Australia, the United States (U.S.) and Europe. Finally, I attempt to define the concept of 'trans-localism' and how it is (per)formed, and suggest that the predominantly 'transnational' conceptual framework within the migration studies needs to be expanded to include 'trans-local' diasporic identity formation among displaced Bosnians and similar diaspora groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]