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To develop a water conscious strategy, it is critical to track and trace water from its source to the end users, understand water conservation behaviors, and identify the factors that influence water consumption. However, in developing nations, little research has been done to provide a quantitative picture of how water is consumed and transformed in urban households, as well as the water sensitive interventions needed to improve access to clean water. Hence, the main objective of the study was to determine the most significant residential water consumption variables and to predict residential water consumption in a way that can generate water consumption information for water sensitive intervention decision making using the case study of Adama city in Ethiopia. A combination of top down and bottom up data collection techniques were employed as the data collection instrument. Machine learning was integrated with spatial and socioeconomic analytic techniques to estimate daily household water consumption and identify the factors that significantly influence household water consumption. The results show that there is only "one source option" for the city's clean water supply and that different water harvesting methods are not likely to be developed. The average daily water consumption per person is 69 liters which falls below the national standard of 80 liters allocated per person per day. The result reveals that the water distribution network covers only 45% of the city master plan. About 38% of the water demand is unmet and 30% of households only receive water once every three days or fewer. This shows that the city is experiencing physical and economic water scarcity. The results demonstrated that family size, housing quality, income, number of rooms, legal status of the parcel, supply reliability, climate, and topographical features are the most important factors in predicting residential water consumption. This study further demonstrates how well supervised machine learning models, such as the Random Forest Regression algorithm, can predict the household's daily water consumption. The findings also showed that there is a need for significant improvements in water saving habits of the households. Another conclusion that can be drawn is that as long as the city's business as usual water consumption practice doesn't change, the water supply problem will worsen over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the increasing pressures of global change, such as urbanization, climate change, population growth, and socioeconomic changes, cities around the world are facing significant water challenges, both in terms of supply and quality. This emphasizes the need for concerted effort to manage water supplies effectively for sustainable development. The driver, pressure, state, impact, and response (DPSIR) model was applied in this study to determine the underlying causes of Addis Ababa's water supply and quality issues. Field observations, key informant interviews, and previously published reports were used to identify these variables, impacts, and coping mechanisms. The model suggests that issues with urban water are caused by inadequate waste management, fast urbanization, climate change, sociodemographic shifts, economic challenges, changes in land use and land cover, and institutional pressures. As a result, aquatic ecosystems endure damage and there is also an increase in water-related diseases and unmet water demand. Some of the responses to these effects include using bottled water, digging boreholes, harvesting rainwater, planting trees, and soliciting funds. The study concludes by recommending an integrated approach to managing the risks of declining water quality and shortage. This study will advance the important empirical understanding of how urban water supply and quality are impacted by environmental stresses on a global scale. It will also positively impact the development of sustainable water management policies and practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water resource evaluation, management, and conservation at the local, national, and international levels depend on an accurate understanding of the hydrological processes. In data-poor environments and topographically complicated areas like the Ghba subbasin in the headwaters of the Nile River, the function of hydrological models is crucial. The primary goal of this study is to use the WEAP model to simulate the hydrology of the Ghba basin. This is because recent hydrological behaviour has changed significantly and resulted in a serious water deficit. The minimal satisfactory performance limit for the monthly stream flow variable was strongly attained by the multi-variable calibration scenario (R² = 0.82, NSE = 0.82, IA= 0.80 RSR = 0.87 and PBIAS = 9 % for calibration scenario; and R² = 0.78, NSE = 0.81, IA= 0.70 RSR = 0.80 and PBIAS = 11.5 % for validation scenario). Evapotranspiration makes up 63.4% of the water balance, according to the model simulation, while surface runoff, interflow, baseflow and groundwater recharge accounting for 11.1 %, 11.8%, 5.4% and 8.3 %, respectively. The simulated average annual streamflow at the subbasin outlet is 16.33 m³ /s. The simulated monthly minimum flow occurs in January with an average flow of 1.78 m³/s and a coefficient of dispersion of 0.45. Maximum flows occur in July and August, with an average flow of 53.57 m³/s and a coefficient of dispersion of 0.19. The main rainy season was shown to have a larger spatial distribution of simulated runoff, and the average annual recharge value is 53.5 mm. The study's conclusions indicated that both surface water harvesting and groundwater extraction might be used for reliable water distribution to the subbasin's continuously increasing sectoral water demand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, modeling of temporal trends for commonly climatic variables for the base line period and future time interval was undertaken for Gelgel Belese watershed in Upper Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia. The climatic variables data from the period 1998 to 2019 was considered the baseline period and the future climate variables data were downscaled using dynamic downscaling method from the Coordinated Regional Climate Downscaling Experiment over the African Domain for 2020 to 2100. Mann–Kendall's trend test and time series linear model were used to test the temporal trends of climatic variables in the study area. The test result of observed precipitation indicated non-significant trend, while the average annual temperature indicated an increasing trend with the rate changes of 0.0067 ∘ C /year and 0.005 ℃/year in Dangila and Chagni stations, respectively. Whereas, in the same time interval non-significant increasing trend in average annual temperature in Pawi station was common. In line with average annual temperature, evapotranspiration indicated significant increasing trend with the rate change of 0.68 mm/5 year in Dangila station and non-significant increasing trend in Chagni and Pawi stations. Future average annual temperature and annual evapotranspiration imply significant increasing trend, whereas mean annual future precipitation exhibited non-significant decreasing trend in the majority of the RCPs in all stations in the future time interval. This change may be responsible for alterations of the hydrological cycle in the study area. Higher increment of temperature and evapotranspiration and reduction of rainfall in the future over the study watershed may result in decreasing pattern of total flow of the river in the area. Due to this, water demand dissatisfaction for different water users in the study area may become common event. Thus, the designs of different water harvesting infrastructures for different water users should be taken into account in the study area in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the impacts of climate change on basin hydrology is critical for developing effective water management practices. This study was conducted to investigate climate change and its impact on the hydrological processes of the Baro–Akobo River basin in Ethiopia. Five bias-corrected regional climate models and their ensemble were developed to examine future climate changes in the 2030s (2021–2050) and 2080s (2071–2100) periods under the two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) 4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios compared to a baseline (1981–2010) period. The calibrated model performed well with Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency and coefficient of determination of each 0.73 for daily and 0.89 and 0.9 for monthly simulation, respectively. Though all RCMs agree concerning the increasing direction of the 2030 and 2080s maximum and minimum temperature changes, there is inconsistency in the magnitude and direction of monthly projected rainfall changes. With the ensemble, the maximum and minimum temperatures will increase by 2.6 and 3.6 °C, respectively, and rainfall will decrease by 5% in the 2080s under RCP8.5 scenarios. The dry and wet season rainfall are expected to decrease by 19 and 3.7% under the RCP8.5 scenarios in the 2080s. Consequently, future climate change could cause a decrease in the annual surface runoff and water yield, while evapotranspiration could increase under the RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios. This study provides useful insights about potential climate change impacts on the hydrology of the basin, which could be useful to inform decision-makers in developing strategies such as water harvesting to mitigate the impact of climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change affects the availability of water resources by altering the pattern and magnitude of precipitation, temperature, and streamflow. The projection of climate change impact on the streamflow is used to identify the level of changes and desirable intervention measures. In this research, Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model and the regional circulation model (RCM) outputs of CORDEX-Africa climate model associated with mid and high-level Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP4.5 and RCP8.5) climate scenarios were used to evaluate the change in streamflow in two future projection scenarios (2041–2070 and 2071–2099). The study is directed to the Upper Wabe Bridge watershed found in the Wabe Shebele basin, Ethiopia. The result shows an increase in mean temperature by 3.46 and 5.15°C for RCP4.5; and 4.78 and 5.88°C for RCP8.5 in mid and long-term periods, respectively. The study also confirmed an increasing trend in annual precipitation by +26.3 and +31.85% for RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 climate scenarios, respectively, at the end of twenty-first century. In Kiremt (rainy) season precipitation shows an increasing trend by +44.28% and +59.34% for RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 climate scenarios, respectively, but Bega (dry) season show decreasing trend. The future projected annual streamflow shows increase trends under both climate scenarios in both projection periods. The mean seasonally streamflow decreases in the Belg (short rainy) season by −10.91% and increases in the Kiremt (rainy) season by 17.4%. Hence, the increment trend in streamflow during the Kiremt season will have the utmost significance for the requirement of storage and rainwater harvesting structures for irrigation development during dry season. Therefore, incorporating the possible effect of climate change is vital during water resources planning and development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Restoration activities in degraded and/or deforested forest landscapes are common and old occurrences around the world. Tree planting is common in most forest landscape restoration initiatives. In Ethiopia, eight seedling-based landscape restoration options are identified to alleviate land degradation and its consequences. The primary purpose of this work was to review factors affecting the early survival of tree and shrub seedlings and their remedies in the restoration sites of Ethiopia. Drought and moisture stress, low soil fertility, poor seedling quality, weak species site matching, termites, livestock grazing, and seasonal frost are the basic factors that hinder the survival and growth of seedlings in the field. In situ rainwater harvesting structures, fertilizer application, the use of quality seedlings, the right species site matching, and the exclusion of livestock and grazing animals from planted seedlings are the remedies that must be employed to increase the success of tree-based restoration practices. Thus, further investigation of the factors affecting the survival of seedlings in the out-planting sites and remediation accordingly is necessary to ensure the productivity and sustainability of restoration practices in Ethiopia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water scarcity and soil erosion are the main constraints small holder farmers are facing in Tigray, the northern most part of Ethiopia. Both very high and very low precipitation can cause a damage to agriculture which is the case in semi-arid regions like Tigray. While too little rainfall cannot support the growth of crops resulting in crop failure, the short but intense rainfall also causes a runoff thereby washing away essential soil nutrients. Installation of different micro/macro-catchment rainwater harvesting can address both water scarcity and soil erosion if they are properly designed prior to construction. This research was intended to develop a methodology for identifying suitable rainwater harvesting (rwh) sites by using weighted overlay analysis. It also utilizes Ahp (analytical hierarchy process) as effective multi-criterion decision-making tool in eastern Tigray at Kilte Awlaelo district on an area of 1001 km2. This method was chosen because it is simple to use, cost effective, flexible and widely adopted. Physical, hydrological, climate and socio-economic aspects were taken into account during criteria selection. The result indicated four suitability classes with 8.74% highly suitable areas (85.25 km2), 56% suitable areas (550.75 km2), 30.8% moderately suitable areas (303.2 km2) and 4.46% less suitable areas (43.87 km2). The produced rwh suitability map was also validated by both ground truth on google earth pro and a field trip to the study site. In situ and ex situ rwh including bench terraces, wells, and exclosure areas were identified during the field visit that verified the suitability model. Finally, depending on weight and scale of criteria and sub-criteria that matched to each identified suitable areas, different micro-catchment and macro-catchment techniques of water harvesting are recommended. This methodology can be utilized as decision-making tool for rwh practitioners, local and foreign organizations working on soil water conservation programmes and policy-makers during their early planning stages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water management and distribution rules in flood-based livelihood systems (FBLS) have a key role in enhancing system-wide productivity and livelihoods. While such potential has to a certain extent been harnessed in DG Khan FBLS in Pakistan, it has not yet been fulfilled in the Tana River and Fogera FBLS in Kenya and Ethiopia, respectively. These three systems are considered among the major sources of water and food security in their respective regions by the local governments and communities. Drawing from 105 individual interviews with Pakistani FBLS farmers, the paper establishes that a package of water management and distribution rules have significantly contributed to (a) mitigating excessive upstream floodwater use, (b) reducing downstream water scarcity and (c) realizing nearly 4 tons ha-1 harvest of the major wheat crop across the upstream and downstream areas. This yield is about 20% higher than the country-wide average, and two-third of the maximum achievable. Furthermore, 86% of the upstream and three in four of the downstream farmers have managed to cover their livelihood needs that included health, school, housing, transportation, energy and food expenses. On the other hand, the analyses based on individual interviews with 94 and 147 FBLS farmers from Kenya and Ethiopia respectively, uncovered the negative consequences of the absence of a comprehensive package of water management and distribution rules. In Kenya, the downstream small-scale farmers that account for two-third of the Tana River FBLS population frequently suffer from floodwater scarcity. They could not cultivate the high return rice crop and their staple maize yield was low at about 1.25 tons ha-1 or 20% of the maximum attainable. Four in five reported poor livelihoods. The upstream largescale farmers however often diverted excessive floodwater; over 90% usually grow rice as well as maize as a second crop for home consumption. The situation in Fogera is similar. The water distribution rules prioritized the upstream rice cultivation introduced a decade back to boost economic growth. This, as informed by 95% of the interviewed farmers, has caused downstream floodwater scarcity, about 30% maize yield reduction and livelihood deterioration. These findings on the impacts of water distribution rules can contribute to formulating investments that better achieve the productivity and livelihood potentials of FBLS across Africa and globally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

All human activities and overall development of this world centre on the essential life substance water. Water supply at many places is augmented mainly through rainwater harvesting (RWH). The study area needs lot of water for agriculture, livestock and human needs especially during the yearly dry season. Although several techniques are in vogue to detect apt RWH sites, their improvement especially for RWH in large sub-catchment regions is much desired. Therefore, RS and GIS techniques already in use are integrated with fuzzy logic to identify and classify sites suitable for RWH in Modjo watershed in central Ethiopia. As a result, potentially acceptable sites in the study area were discerned and categorized as very highly suitable, highly suitable, moderately suitable, low suitable, very low suitable and constraints with 18.1%, 20.9%, 20.3%, 10.6%, 3.1% and 26.9% area, respectively. Thus, the model with geospatial and analytic hierarchy process combination has proved very successful in detecting RWH sites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding hydro-climate variability in areas where communities are strongly dependent on subsistence natural resource-based economies at finer spatial resolution can have substantial benefits for effective agricultural water management. This study investigated the hydro-climate variability and trend of the Jemma sub-basin, in the Upper Blue Nile (Abbay) basin, using Mann–Kendall test, Sen's slope estimator, and Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI). Climate data from 11 weather stations inside the basin and two major streams were used for the statistical analysis. The climate data were also correlated with the ENSO phenomenon to explain drivers of the variability. The results show that the sub-basin has been experiencing normal to moderate variability in the annual and Kiremt season rainfalls, but high variability and declining trend for 73% of the minor (Belg) season rainfall, negatively affecting the planting of short-cycle crops that account for about 20% of crop production in the study area. Generally, strong El Nińo (SST anomaly >1) has been correlated to a substantial decline in the Belg season rainfall. Stream-flow variability has also been found to be very high (CV > 30%) in both river flow monitoring stations. Subsequently, ensuring agricultural water security for short-cycle crop production seems to be a risky and daunting task unless supplemented with groundwater conjunctive use or water harvesting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poverty is multi-dimensional global challenge that impedes individual and community capacities to satisfy basic needs. These capacities are shaped by locally configured institutional and biophysical processes that are often hidden from external researchers and practitioners. To explore this worldwide aspect, we adopt participatory rural appraisal (PRA) methods to expose barriers to implementing livelihood strategies to address poverty in Ethiopia's upper Blue Nile basin, where 85 % of the population are subsistence farmers reliant on local ecosystem services (ES). We identify local barriers to poverty alleviation in three steps. First, we classify major ES-livelihood interrelationships among communities of Debre Mawi catchment in upper Blue Nile. Secondly we assess ongoing struggles in these interrelations using combined biophysical and social assessment criteria to evaluate how poverty relates to current patterns of ES management. The analysis identifies complex interdependencies between livelihoods and regulating (crop pest controls), provisioning (water, land, and feed availability, soil fertility) and cultural (top-down ES management, population growth) ES that create bottlenecks to effectively 'lock in' poverty. Thirdly, we identify potential new ES management strategies, focused on dry season water availability. We conduct participatory field experiments on rooftop water harvesting to show this is a promising approach for increasing water availability to enhance agricultural production. Depending on the rooftop area, our modelling suggests that farmers can improve household income by US$136– 14,876 from 5 months beef fattening and US$69–7704 from 4 months sheep fattening. Except these specific livelihood strategies, the findings are replicable to the world's ES-dependent regions. • A novel rigorous approach was developed to maximize poverty alleviation. • Water scarcity is most important bottleneck to move out of poverty. • Rooftop water harvesting avoids water scarcity and improves livelihood. • Unpredictable rainfall causes significant crop yield reduction. • Poverty alleviation needs to focus on the poorest segment of society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, East Africa has been suffering from severe droughts. The availability of water is crucial to socioeconomic development and ecosystem services in the region. In order to address the pressing issue of water scarcity in the Wag Himra zone, a study will identify viable rainwater harvesting (RWH) sites. Geographical Information System with a multi-criteria evaluation system was used to identify suitable RWH sites based on land use and cover, soil texture, runoff depth, slope, drainage density, and considering road and town constraints. The runoff depth was estimated using the soil conservation service curve number model, and the land use/cover image classification was undertaken using ArcGIS. By using weighted overlay analysis, sites that are potentially suitable for RWH were identified. Based on the hydrological and socioeconomic characteristics of the study area and available literature, the weight of the criteria was determined using the Analytical Hierarchical Process. The findings of the study indicate that only 0.02% of the study area is considered highly suitable, 2.59, 12.26, 61.76, and 21.1% are rated as moderately suitable, marginally suitable, less suitable, and not suitable for RWH, respectively, and 2.29% is labeled a constraint for RWH. It is possible to harvest and store rainwater in the study area to meet increasing water demand. These findings aim to assist decision-makers, planners, and managers to find sites, invest in water resources, and use RWH as an alternative water source. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Access to clean and sufficient drinking water is difficult in much of Ethiopia's Afar Region. It is observed that many schemes in the region are non-functional. The study was conducted to overcome the observed problem in seven selected districts of the region. The study regarded hand-dug wells and roof water collection systems, which are the two most common features in the research areas. Eight hand-dug wells and sixteen roof water harvestings are purposively included in the study. All the water points are constructed by Kelem Ethiopia which is a non-governmental organisation and the foremost local organisation for the communities. As per the research survey, the average functional status of the hand-dug well schemes is 65.75% and the roof water harvesting schemes is 22.94%. The research was based on the qualitative data collected on site. The hand-dug well sites were evaluated using 10 parameters, and the roof water harvesting schemes were analysed using 12 parameters. The main non-functional aspects of the scheme are lack of community ownership, drying up of water sources, lack of maintenance and rehabilitation, poor coordination of beneficiaries and school roofs blowing off. Most schemes still require minor to major maintenance and rehabilitation. According to the research, the solutions for water supply are identified in relation to the desired objective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The total annual river flow at the Awash Kombolcha sub-basin of the Borkena river station was estimated to be 4.6 billion cubic meters by 2019-2030. The current average annual flow at the exit measurement station is 544.5Mm3 of the water resources available in the study area. The monthly peak flow of the Borkena River occurs from July to September. In addition, the highest monthly average flow is in August and the lowest is in June, with values of 150.7 million m3 and 6.1 million m3 respectively. WEAP model performance or model calibration was simulated between 1998 and 2018 and quantitative statistics were calculated for each previously observed flow coefficient of determination, R2, Nash Satcliff efficiency, etc. Percent bias, evaluated using PBIAS), then R2 = 0.988 and NSE = 0.70 PBIAS = 0.8 results. Assuming a relatively low reserve flow of over 92% corresponding emission analysis concept of 142 million population was considered as input. The performance balance of the model is 2019 demand data and simulated flow data at the Khemiessy exit supply. In the 2030 average growth scenario, the herd of livestock increased again by 1,610,161 to 1,776,937, with a corresponding growth rate of 0.7% per annum of 81.9 million m3. This means that annual water usage has increased by 90.5% compared to the current scenario. Other optional implants such as rainwater harvesting, surface water harvesting, and groundwater need to be booked to meet the peak demand for dry months where the availability of surface water resources in these scenarios is felt in all water utilization sectors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the study is to analyze the spatio-temporal variability and projection of rainfall and temperature (2021-2040) in Suha watershed, North West highlands of Ethiopia. The study used 4 km × 4 km reconstructed (blended) monthly rainfall and temperature data from National Meteorological Agency of Ethiopia (NMAE) and Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI) of Cen Trends v1 (0.25° × 0.25°), respectively. Mann–Kendall test, Sen's slope estimator, coefficient of variation, autoregressive integrated model , and the inverse distance weighted tool were used to analysis the rainfall and temperature variability for different timescale and agroecology. The coefficient of variation showed the existence of high seasonal variability than the year-to-year in the watershed. Kiremt (main rainy season) rainfall showed substantial inter-annual variability throughout the time of observation (1990–2020). Besides, the Mann–Kendall test and the Sen's slope estimator detected that except, Belg (little rainy season) rainfall, all the others including the annual exhibited a nonsignificant increasing trend at p < 0.05. Spatially, the upper part of the watershed is wetter than the lower portion and a large portion of it (40%) received 930–1024 mm of rainfall per year. The minimum temperature showed a decreasing trend (0.01 °C per year), while the maximum temperature exhibited the opposite result (0.02 °C per year). The seasonal variability in both cases showed mixed outcomes. Forty-two percent of the watershed experiences a minimum temperature of 10.6–12.0 °C, whereas 45% experiences a maximum temperature between 24.1 and 26.0 °C. Meanwhile, the projected result showed that there is a decreasing trend for mean annual rainfall and an increasing trend for mean annual temperature from 2021 to 2040. Hence, policymakers have to give priority to the designing and application of area-specific adaptive strategies to curb the impact of climate variability. Rainwater harvesting and small-scale irrigation practice could be possible options. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spatial and temporal rainfall variability analysis at a basin scale is essential to understand water availability for sustainable water resource management. This study investigated the spatial distribution and temporal rainfall trend in the Tekeze river basin using daily rainfall data collected from 43 meteorological stations with records from 1960 to 2019. Coefficient of variation, seasonality index (SI) and trend index were used to evaluate monthly, seasonal and annual rainfall variability in the basin. The non‐parametric Mann‐Kendall's test was used to understand any rainfall trends. Results showed that there is moderate annual rainfall variability in the basin. Rainfall variability is higher in the Tsedey, Bega and Belg than kiremt season. SI results showed that majority of the Tekeze river basin is categorized as seasonal, most of the rain occurring in less than 3 months. Overall, Mann‐Kendall's test result revealed that there is no significant annual rainfall trend in the basin except for four stations. The seasonal rainfall characteristics and short duration of rain in the basin indicate that there is a need to implement water harvesting measures during the wet season for use in the dry periods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Few efforts have been reported about climate change effects on agriculture production from smallholder farmers' conditions. The objective of this study was to assess smallholder farmers' understanding on the effects of climate change on agriculture production in Dura catchment, northern Ethiopia. Data were collected using group discussions and semi-structured interview of 79 sample household heads from the study catchment. Data were subjected to descriptive, Chi square and t test. The majority of the respondents reported that variability in management practices and farm and institutional attributes influenced significantly farmers understanding of the effects of climate change on agricultural production. A significantly higher proportion of farmers (98%) identified food and feed shortage as the major indicators of the effects of climate change on production. Significantly higher proportions of farmers reported that there are crop types towards disappearing from farmers fields (e.g., barley, sorghum) and livestock (e.g., horse), reduced in area coverage (e.g., lentil, faba bean), expanded in area coverage (e.g., tef, maize, chick pea, cauliflower, tomato) in response to climatic change effects. Farmers' also classified the different crops into different sensitivity classes as 57% of the farmers reported that tef is not sensitive to climate change effects. A significantly higher proportion of farmers (98%) confirmed that one of the potential and serous impacts of climate change is to decrease in economics of the community. Promotion of robust adaptation strategies such as water harvesting, irrigation, stress tolerant crop varieties, in the context of climate change are thus suggested for the conditions of smallholder farmers' in northern Ethiopia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study examined farmers' perceptions and adoption of rain water harvesting technology in Raya-Alamata district of Ethiopia. Four kebeles were purposively selected from the 13 homogeneous kebeles (small administrative unit). During the survey, primary data were collected through a semistructured questionnaire distributed to 270 systematically selected sample respondents and through interview with key informants, development agents, and local administrators. Secondary data were retrieved from district agriculture office, books, and published scientific materials. Descriptive statistics, simple narration, and a probit regression model were used to analyze the data. The results showed that the farmers perceived rain water harvesting as a motivational way of creating sense of belongingness. They think that it increases crop production, increases forest regeneration, and encourages forage production. The probit regression models revealed that determinants of farmers' adoption of rainwater harvesting technology were significantly and positively affected by education, farm size, and off-farm income. The effect of distance to the farmland and farmers training center (FTC) was also significant but negative. Men farmers had higher level of adoption compared to their counterparts. Productive and reproductive roles constrain women household farmers from using the technologies. Based on the finding, the policy implications were as follows: dissemination of information related to rain water harvesting technology should be imperative through formal and informal education. Alternative sources of water need also be promoted. More importantly, female-headed households need to be encouraged to be community leaders to foster the adoption of rain water harvesting technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study was conducted to assess factors that determine a household's participation and intensity of use in the Gemechis district. A multi-stage sampling technique was employed and 167 sample households were selected by using the Cochran formula. Both quantitative and qualitative data types from primary and secondary sources were collected. Cross-sectional data were gathered through a semi-structured questionnaire survey. For both dummy and continuous variables, chi-square (χ2) and independent t-test statistics were used, respectively, to test the significance of the mean value of the two groups of participants and non-participants. The double hurdle model was used to analyze determinants of farmers' decision to participate and intensity of use of small-scale irrigation practice. Results of the first part of the double hurdle (probit) model revealed that the sex of household heads, household size, the annual income of the household, farm distance from the water source, access to extensions, and credit services were found to significantly determine the participation decisions of farmers in the small-scale irrigated agriculture, at different significance levels. In the second part of the double hurdle (truncated) model indicates household size, access to own oxen, farming experience, and access to credit services were found to significantly determine the intensity of participation in small-scale irrigated farming, at different significance levels. Results further showed that farm distance from irrigation water was found to be a barrier for participation in irrigation with significant effect. Therefore, groundwater development and rainwater harvesting ponds should be practiced close to the irrigation land. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scarcity of freshwater is one of the major issues which hinders nourishment in large portion of the countries like Ethiopia. The communities in the Dawe River watershed are facing acute water shortage where water harvesting is vital means of survival. The purpose of this study was to identify optimal water harvesting areas by considering socioeconomic and biophysical factors. This was performed through the integration of soil and water assessment tool (SWAT) model, remote sensing (RS) and Geographic Information System (GIS) technique based on multi-criteria evaluation (MCE). The parameters used for the selection of optimal sites for rainwater harvesting were surface runoff, soil texture, land use land cover, slope gradient and stakeholders’ priority. Rainfall data was acquired from the neighbouring weather stations while information about the soil was attained from laboratory analysis using pipette method. Runoff depth was estimated using SWAT model. The statistical performance of the model in estimating the runoff was revealed with coefficient of determination (R²) of 0.81 and Nash–Sutcliffe Efficiency (NSE) of 0.76 for monthly calibration and R² of 0.79 and NSE of 0.72 for monthly validation periods. The result implied that there's adequate runoff water to be conserved. Combination of hydrological model with GIS and RS was found to be a vital tool in estimating rainfall runoff and mapping suitable water harvest home sites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate vagary has exposed farming communities in Semien Mountains (North West Ethiopia) to repeated droughts and famines in recent years. Most of the farming communities in this area have failed to produce sufficient food and have become dependent on foreign food donations. Yet, the impact, vulnerability and adaptive capacity of the community to climate change in the above-mentioned mountain areas are not well documented. This paper examined the temporal temperature and rainfall trends, and the communities' vulnerability to climate change as well as their adaptive capacities to the changing climate to fill the existing information gaps regarding issues called forth in the Semien Mountains and other highland environments. Data were gathered using questionnaires, interviews, focus group discussions and field observations. Information from meteorological recordings was also collected for this study. The collected data were analyzed using standardized precipitation index, livelihood vulnerability index, bi-logit model and descriptive statistics. The results confirmed highest climatic variability manifested in rainfall and temperature changes. Rainfall decreased by a total of 573.46 mm (by ≈ 16.38 mm per year on average) from 1979 to 2013. Mean annual temperature increased from 18.54 °C in 1979 to 20 °C in 2013. In this light, majority of the respondents (85%) reported facing climatic hazards. About 70% of them perceive that climate change has decreased land productivity and numerous others (74%) felt its future implications on farmlands. Recurrent crop and animal diseases were indicated by 95.21 and 93.41% of the sampled households, respectively. These climate change-induced incidents were exacerbated by lower adaptive capacities and limited institutional services. Livestock rearing, livelihood diversification, stone bund building, tree planting, organic fertilizer application, selling home articles, soil bund construction, rainwater harvesting, utilizing synthetic fertilizers and preparing hand-dug wells were important adaptive strategies used and ranked 1–10, respectively, by the studied households. Extension services, family size, farm income, access to training and livestock ownership found influential during the use of composting, terracing and tree planting to reduce the negative impact of climate change. Farmer-to-farmer extension appeared to significantly reduce composting, terrace building and tree planting at p < 0.01 level. This calls for further social and cultural related studies to explore the reasons. Climate change adaptation strategies should thus focus on enhancing households' access to key livelihood assets such as education (training), family size, farm income, extension service, and livestock ownership opportunities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change vulnerability may differ among small farming communities and depend on combinations of multiple social and biophysical processes. In this study, we assessed vulnerability to climate change among maize-dependent smallholders in three districts of Ethiopia. Household socio-demographic factors, land use system, access to food, natural hazard, livelihood strategy and social network data were collected and subsequently analysed by the livelihood vulnerability index and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Vulnerability Index approaches. Results show that within the same production system, smallholder farmers experience different degrees of climate change vulnerability. This variation in climate change vulnerability is highly and significantly explained by very localized socio-economic factors such as household educational level, access to drought-resistant crop varieties, extent of family ties with social groups and local organizations, and quality of rural water supply and health infrastructures along with biophysical factors like land size and soil fertility status. It is, therefore, suggested that recognizing smallholder farmers' relative vulnerability to climate change provides a range of effective coping strategies that would help to better build household resilience capacity and promote sustainable livelihood development. Hence, policymakers and development organizations need to focus on better strengthening human and institutional capacity through enhanced education and continuous training on climate change impact, and efficient and sustainable intensification through crop rotation, fertilizer use, rainwater harvesting and farm diversification that increase productivity by restoring soil and agroecosystem health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to identify determinants of rainwater harvesting adoption, and evaluate its impact on livelihood of smallholder farmers in Kutaber district. A multi-stage sampling technique was employed to select 196 sample households. Descriptive statistics and econometric models were used to analyze the primary data. Logit model was used to identify determinants of rainwater harvesting adoption while propensity score matching was used to evaluate its impact on livelihood of smallholder farmers. The result of logit model revealed that education level, family size, farming experience, participation in technology demonstration, and membership in farmer cooperative were significantly and positively affected adoption of rainwater harvesting technology, while age of household head negatively affected it. The finding of this study showed that adoption of rainwater harvesting technology have a positive and significant effect on the livelihood of farmers in terms of household annual farm income and food security. The result indicated that rainwater harvesting has significantly increased adopters' annual farm income by 35.13% and daily calorie intake per adult equivalent by 15.56% than non-adopters. Therefore, it is recommended to alter the attitude of technology averse older farmers, enhance farmer training and experience sharing, accessible demonstration sites and farmer cooperative to achieve extensive adoption of the technology thereby improve farmer's livelihood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rainwater harvesting has been known and widely practiced for many centuries, especially during the dry season for a different purpose. The increase of agricultural economy of the country is extremely exposed to weather and climate effects. Decrease of crop production in dry areas is linked to the water (runoff, evaporation and overindulgence use). The objective of this manuscript is to review the status of rainwater harvesting (RWH) technology and practices in sustaining agricultural production in Ethiopia. The in-situ and ex-situ RWH techniques have shown a significant impact on improved soil moisture, runoff and ground water recharge and increased agricultural production, which, in turn, reduce risks and deliver positive impacts on other ecosystems. The implementation of thousands of indicated above structures has been also confined with a range of problems and challenges. In the eastern part of Ethiopia, water shortage and lack of improved technology were the main problems, therefore practicing water harvesting and supplying improved water harvesting technologies providing extended service regularly for farmers should be practiced in the future. Therefore, from the point of view of water conservation, both internal and external catchment-based RWH had the eminent potential of mitigating rainfall-related crop production risks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In southern Ethiopia, pastoralism has been possible due to complex ancient indigenous technology for excavating and rehabilitating the ancient tula wells. Despite centuries of operations, recent years have seen fundamental transformations in labour mobilisation and the technology for water harvesting, while hired labour is replacing clan-based labour organisation. Payments for well rehabilitation have changed from cattle to cash, while technological transformations include using plastic buckets (jerrycans) instead of leather buckets (okole), and metal tools and earth moving machines. The combined effects of such transformations will affect the sustainability of the Borana water management system, which remains uncertain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Infrastructure development (including roads and railways) are among the major investments in many countries in Africa. Road hydraulic structures (road side drainages, culverts and bridges) are mostly designed to discharge concentrated flow of water. Unmanaged water from roads could lead to erosion, flooding, water logging, siltation, and even landslides. To convert such problems into opportunities, road water harvesting (RWH) was systematically promoted in Tigray, northern Ethiopia, in the years 2014-2018. The method/approach used include: (i) participatory selection of RWH technologies, (ii) implementation of the technologies through community mobilization, and (iii) monitoring the hydrological effects/benefits of the interventions (mainly on soil moisture and groundwater levels). Results of the study revealed that harvesting water from road catchments is found to have several benefits: increase in groundwater recharge (enhancing infiltration and reducing flooding), improvement in soil moisture, and increase in availability of surface water in ponds/reservoirs. Road water harvesting/management was found to be an instrument to create resilience to rainfall variability and reduce the negative effects of water from roads; an opportunity which need to be promoted not only in water and land management but also in infrastructural development whereby multi-functional roads could be designed/constructed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extensively vulnerable mixed rain-fed farming system is the underlying mainstay of livelihoods of farmers in the central Rift Valley of Ethiopia. This study aimed to assess determinants of farmers' livelihood vulnerabilities to shocks, their coping strategies and outcomes. Cross-sectional data were collected from farmers, agricultural experts, and other development workers through formal and informal focus group discussions, key informant interviews and complemented by field observations. Results showed that natural, institutional, and physical factors are the overriding determinants triggering rural livelihood vulnerabilities to frequent food shocks. Particularly, unpredictable rainfall timing and severity, and ineffective early warning system had practically escalated livelihood vulnerabilities to food shocks. Farmers varied in their assets and socioeconomic capabilities, including wealth status, livestock and poultry holding size, farm size and its soil fertility status, participation in local social networks, and financial capital and access to credit facilities. Farmers also varied in their vulnerability to encountering food shocks and capability to coping. Strategies practiced by households to increase livelihood resilience to rainfall variability include selection of appropriate crop variety, selection of appropriate calendar for planting, intercropping, crop rotation and indigenous in situ rainwater harvesting. Sharing grains among households themselves, selling small ruminants, engaging in off-farm activities and migration were key ameliorative strategies to handle small-scale and temporary food shocks. While, institutional interventions with Food Aid and Safety Net programs were commonly used as the underlying coping strategies for severe and large-scale food shocks. The livelihood outcomes were characterized by continued endeavors to avert the inappropriate land management system, to adapt to the recurrent drought and dry spells, and to improve the inadequate early warnings condition for seasonal agro-meteorology. Therefore, authors suggest concerted efforts of stakeholder institutions and local communities to improve the livelihood outcomes that should enhance household capabilities, activities, assets and accesses; reduce vulnerabilities to shocks; and ensure sustainable agricultural production system in central Rift Valley of Ethiopia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Female-headed households were more vulnerable to climate change than male-headed. • Women used a variety of climate change adaptation measures. • There are a wide range of determinants of farmers' climate change adaptation choices. • Women's participation in adapting is linked to their relationship with nature. The study of the impacts and drivers of climate change adaptation should consider gender (in)equality and women's participation, as they both play pivotal roles. However, research on gender aspects of climate change adaptation has been limited. This study assesses gender dimensions of adaptation to climate change and determinants of smallholder farmers' adaptation strategies in Adwa district, Tigray, Ethiopia. Drawing on household surveys, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions carried out in 2017, the study found that climate change had more severe impacts on female-headed households than on male-headed households. This was due to women's lack of resource access and control, lack of income and technology use, and high dependence on natural resources. Major climate change adaptation measures identified in the study area included adjustment of planting dates, crop varieties, water harvesting practices, soil and water conservation, irrigation, seasonal migration, diversifying income sources, and agricultural inputs. Rates and extent of adaptation varied by gender. As indicated by multivariate probit analysis, major determinants of farmers' adaptation choices included agro-ecology; gender, age, education, family size, farm size, non-farm income, livestock; access to information, extension services, and credit; and distance to market center. Study findings suggest that policymakers should consider differences between female- and male-headed families in their access to land, information, income, extension services, technologies, and other resources. By doing so, climate change adaptation practices may be broadened and sustainable development promoted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Spate irrigation modernization in Ethiopia failed due to lack of farmers’ involvement. • We developed a participatory design approach for traditional spate systems development. • Hybrid diversions and bank protection have been designed. • Innovative solutions developed by farmers should be inserted in technical design. • Flood risk is a main constraint to development, a new approach is requested. Abstract Spate Irrigation represents the main source of livelihood for rural population of many communities living in arid and semi-arid areas of the world. The area of Raya Valley (Ethiopia), is one such example that is used here to analyse the importance of participatory approach in making this irrigation technique sustainable, effective and durable. Spate irrigation development projects realised in Raya Valley during the last twenty years led to a partial failure, due to the low involvement of local farmers who have experience of the local environment and who have been practising the techniques from centuries. This paper describes the implementation of a participatory methodology, based on the integration of Participatory Rural Appraisal and Participatory Design, for the design of effective improvements in a traditional spate irrigation system in Raya Valley. Water is harvested from seasonal floods of wadis (ephemeral rivers) using diversion bunds made by local materials or concrete. Farmers’ participation allowed to defining gabions as a suitable solution and to realise a technical design of improved structures. The design of an improved diversion structure and a gabion wall against bank erosion was completed. The structures resulted in line with operation and maintenance strategy and with traditional spate irrigation management. New insights from local farmers knowledge, to be considered for future spate irrigation development projects, are analysed and presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rainfall shortages constrain small-holders' agricultural production in developing countries and with ongoing climate change these shortages may increase in volume and frequency. Rainwater harvesting irrigation is an interesting technology that decreases this risk. Therefore, one would expect an increasing use of this technology in drought-prone areas, particularly for large and wealthy farms. This study investigated the relation between farm size and share of irrigated land among smallholders from two regions in Ethiopia. It also analyzed which factors explain the share of irrigated land using panel data collected in 2005 and 2010. A random effects tobit model was estimated for the share of irrigated land as a function of variables affecting returns, market prices, source of finance, and expectation formation. The findings show that the share of irrigated land declines with farm size. Moreover, the share of irrigated land depends on distance to market, ease of selling output, age, aridity, distance from natural water sources, credit access, and regional differences. These results question the relevance of water harvesting for farm enlargement. However, they also show that by safeguarding the availability of credit and improving local infrastructure farmers may extend the share of land irrigated by harvested water. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agricultural water scarcity is a major limiting factor for crop production in dry land regions of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Despite notable efforts of developing macro-catchment rainwater harvesting (RWH) techniques, few studies have evaluated the performance of RWH for deficit supplemental irrigation of crops. We examine the agro-meteorological risks such as late onset, early cessation, overall low rainfall amounts and long dry spells during the growing season and evaluate the potential of macro-catchment RWH for supplemental irrigation of onion in the southern dry lands of Ethiopia. Field experiments were undertaken during 2012 and 2013 to evaluate the effects of 50% ETc, 75% ETc and 100% ETc irrigation levels on yield and water productivity of onion during dry and wet seasons. The harvestable yield and water productivity of onion under 75% ETc irrigation were not significantly lower than that under 100% ETc irrigation during both the dry and wet seasons. Thus, deficit supplemental irrigation of onion at 75% ETc can be implemented with macro-catchment RWH to reduce the risks of crop failure and significant yield declines in dryland areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water scarcity is a key factor in food security and sustainable livelihood in sub-Saharan Africa, particularly in East Africa. The problem is severe in many parts of Ethiopia where water plays a central role in the country's economy. To alleviate and curb water scarcity different water harvesting technologies were introduced in Ethiopia during the last two decades; nevertheless their sustainability and livelihood impacts are not well addressed. For the first time a complete and comprehensive inventory of micro-dam reservoirs (MDRs) in Tigray has been established including the geological background and currently observed problems. The inventory of 92 MDRs in Tigray was conducted using the direct field observational method, selected interviews and secondary data, to understand the overall situation of the schemes from engineering geological and geo-hydrological perspectives and its implication to sustainability and water availability. Analysis of the inventory shows that sustainability and livelihood impact of the water harvesting schemes are threatened by siltation, leakage, insufficient run-off, poor water management and structural damages on the dam body as well as on irrigation infrastructure and spillway. Basic statistical analysis showed that 61% of them are found to have siltation problems, 53% suffer from leakage, 22% from insufficient inflow, 25% have structural damages and 21% have spillway erosion problems. Furthermore, nearly 70% of the MDRs are founded on carbonate dominant sedimentary terrain at places with intrusion of dolerite sills/dykes and the problems of siltation and leakage are found to be extremely high in the MDRs located in such geological setting, as compared to those on crystalline metamorphic rocks. Lack of proper water management was observed in most of the reservoirs with irrigation practices. Future research and analysis on the causes of the bottlenecked problems and monitoring surveillance are recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extreme rainfall variability has been one of the major factors to famine and environmental degradation in Ethiopia. The potential for water harvesting in the Upper Blue Nile Basin was assessed using two GIS-based Multicriteria Evaluation methods: (1) a Boolean approach to locate suitable areas for in situ and ex situ systems and (2) a weighted overlay analysis to classify suitable areas into different water harvesting suitability levels. The sensitivity of the results was analyzed to the influence given to different constraining factors. A large part of the basin was suitable for water harvesting: the Boolean analysis showed that 36% of the basin was suitable for in situ and ex situ systems, while the weighted overlay analysis showed that 6–24% of the basin was highly suitable. Rainfall has the highest influence on suitability for water harvesting. Implementing water harvesting in nonagricultural land use types may further increase the benefit. Assessing water harvesting suitability at the larger catchment scale lays the foundation for modeling of water harvesting at mesoscale, which enables analysis of the potential and implications of upscaling of water harvesting practices for building resilience against climatic shocks. A complete water harvesting suitability study requires socioeconomic analysis and stakeholder consultation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study analyses disadoption of water harvesting technologies in Ethiopia where the average disadoption rate in the sample areas is as high as 42%. Given that Ethiopia is a drought-prone country with 95% of its crop production being rain-fed, such a high disadoption rate for irrigation technologies is surprising and urges investigation. Using panel data on 332 Ethiopian farm households collected in 2005 and 2010 we estimate a logit model to identify factors underlying disadoption. We find farm-household, economic, technology-specific, and natural condition variables that relate to disadoption. Mainly, shortage of plastic-sheets, altitude, and distance to market increase disadoption whereas education, experience with water harvesting (learning-by-doing), farm profit, availability of family labour, access to credit, ease of selling output, growing perennial crops, and distance from natural water sources decrease the probability of disadoption. There is no evidence that malaria has a significant effect on disadoption. Based on these findings, improved supply of plastic sheets and motor pumps, and advise to farmers on appropriate crops, credit and improved market accesses could contribute to decreasing disadoption of water harvesting technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Community-based water storage in semi arid areas can help to adapt to climate change and mitigate household water shortages. Since little is known on the downstream effects of local water storage, this study employs a water balance model to perform a catchment scale assessment of upscaling local scale water storage in sand dams. The impacts of increasing water storage is evaluated under current climate conditions and future climate change scenarios. Survey information is used to estimate current and future water demand and assess the benefits derived from current sand dams in the Ethiopian study area. Using an indicator of the environmental flow concept, downstream hydrological impacts are simulated for different scenarios. Storage by 613 dams, supplying water to 555,000 people, has no impact on environmental flow downstream of the sand dams. Storage by 2190 dams leads to a modest increase in the number of months with low flow (4 to 9 %). Projected climate change leads to a larger increase in the number of low flow months of 0 to 29 %. Joint climate change and maximum storage scenarios cause an increase in low flow months from 4 to 50 %. Under the most extreme climate change projection 4.5 % of the wet season discharge is stored in sand dams. Because of the local benefits of improved water supply and the acceptable range of downstream impacts, sand dams appear to be a viable way for supplying drinking water in this catchment as well as in other semi-arid regions with similar conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Assessing and empirically measuring the development impact of rainwater management innovations to inform related decisions remains conceptually and methodologically difficult. Whether it is empirically more appropriate to assess and measure the impact pathways than the impact per se remains an important methodological issue. This paper proposes a Rainwater–Livelihoods–Poverty Index (RLPI) as a comprehensive and participatory impact pathway assessment technique with measurable indicators recapitulating the sustainable livelihoods framework. The methodological contributions to rainwater impact assessment are two-fold. First, the RLPI explicitly incorporates intermediate processes and impact pathways as important factors affecting the development impacts of rainwater-related interventions. Second, the RLPI combines quantitative and qualitative household response data into a single yet meaningful quantitative impact indicator. This makes the methodology participatory, allowing farmers engagement to use their knowledge (as local expert observers) in informing rainwater management decisions. The methodology is empirically tested in Diga district (western Ethiopia) and validated using expert opinions. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Abstract: Rainfall shortage is a major production risk for smallholder farmers. Due to rainfall shortage, smallholders limit the use of modern inputs such as fertilizer and improved seeds. This study investigates if water harvesting technologies (WHTs) induce fertilizer use and whether there is joint adoption of fertilizer and water harvesting technologies. Using panel data collected from Ethiopian farmers in two regions in 2005 and 2010, a random effects probit model and a bivariate probit model are estimated to investigate these two issues. Both models include variables that are hypothesized to affect fertilizer and WHT use. The findings indicate that: (1) water harvesting increases the probability of using fertilizer; (2) past WHT use positively affects the probability of current fertilizer use but past fertilizer use does not affect current WHT use; (3) total landholding, farm capital, and education significantly increase the probability of fertilizer use whereas the price of fertilizer and distance to market decrease the probability of fertilizer use; (4) there are significant regional and yearly differences in fertilizer use; and (5) growing perennial crops, and distance from natural water sources increase the probability of using water harvesting in 2010 whereas distance from markets, age and altitude decreases it. These results imply that measures encouraging water harvesting can also lift low fertilizer use among Ethiopian smallholders. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Reservoir siltation is a serious problem that threatens the productivity and sustainability of water-harvesting schemes. Quantification of sediment deposition in reservoirs and understanding of its major drivers are needed to apply targeted management interventions. Most of the techniques used to estimate sediment deposition in reservoirs require extensive measurements on a frequent time basis, as well as being costly and time-consuming. Thus, a rapid and relatively economical means of assessing the erosion susceptibility of catchments and predicting their sediment yield potential is necessary. In this study, expert-based rankings and semi-quantitative factorial scoring approaches were applied to assess the siltation severity of 25 reservoirs in the Tigray region of northern Ethiopia. The results were then correlated with quantitative sediment yield estimates acquired for representative sites, and a sediment yield predication model was developed for the region. The calibrated model has an efficiency and relative root mean square error (RRMSE) of 79 and 36%, respectively, which is considered adequate to assess erosion susceptibility and siltation risk of reservoirs in similar environments. The study demonstrates that expert knowledge and rapid characterization of catchments, in terms of susceptibility to erosion, are viable options for assessing siltation risks and for analysing controlling factors at a larger number of sites, with minimum costs and acceptable accuracy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Ex situ household rainwater harvesting (RWH) systems have been introduced at a large scale in Ethiopia to increase the water availability for smallholders through supplementary irrigation. The first objective of this paper is to review the performance of these systems in Ethiopia based on various assessment studies. The second objective is to provide quantitative biophysical and socio-economic analyses of ex situ household RWH systems contributing to the better understanding of their performance and the identification of options to improve their performance. Uptake of RWH systems by smallholders in Ethiopia is limited and the available information suggests that this is associated among others with poor planning and implementation, poorly functioning input and output markets and the lack of farmers’ skills to use these systems effectively. Our quantitative meta-analyses illustrate that water availability of three studied RWH systems is low in relation to crop water needs, particularly for maize. The variation in area that can be irrigated across years exposes users of RWH systems to considerable risks as the availability of irrigation water depends on prevailing rainfall conditions. The area that can be irrigated varies greatly depending on amount and distribution of rainfall, type of RWH system and crop type. The economics of onion (cash crop) are promising only for plastic lined RWH systems, but those for maize are unfavourable independent of the studied RWH systems. Associated labour requirements especially for water lifting and application are high and possibly constraining the sustainable use of RWH systems. The potential of ex situ household RWH systems to increase agricultural production and income is site-specific depending on biophysical, institutional and socio-economic conditions, and depends on household-specific conditions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In the water scarce Lenche Dima watershed in the northern Ethiopian highlands community based integrated watershed management was implemented to fight land degradation, raise agricultural productivity and improve farmers’ livelihoods. The effects of two interventions, namely exclosures and water harvesting structures, were assessed based on data from farmers’ interviews, measurements of feed biomass production, and estimates of energy production and requirements. Water used for livestock feed production was obtained through simple soil water balance modelling. By protecting 40% of the rangelands, the water productivity of the feed increased by about 20%. This indicated that exclosure establishment could lead to similar improvements in livestock water productivity (LWP, defined as the ratio of livestock benefits over the water used in producing these). Water harvesting structures ensured year-round water availability in the homestead, which resulted in less energy used for walking to drinking points. A considerable amount of energy was thus saved, which could be used for livestock production and improved animal health without additional water use. Besides restoring regulating and supporting ecosystem services, both interventions led to a more efficient use of the scarce water resources for biomass and livestock production. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The article presents a study which assesses the performance of soil and water assessment tool (SWAT) hydrologic model in two Ethiopian catchments. The study used spectrum analysis on climatic data from available nearby stations to limit temporal and spatial scales in the calibration of runoff models, and has developed an optimization algorithm. It says that the study is significant in the development of generic rainfall-runoff model that is compatible for Ethiopian catchments.

Droughts, resulting in low crop yields, are common in the semi-arid areas of Ethiopia and adversely influence the well-being of many people. The introduction of any strategy that could increase yields would therefore be advantageous. The objective of this study was to attempt to assess the influence of in-field rainwater harvesting (IRWH), compared to conventional tillage, on increasing the amount of water available to a crop like maize on a semi-arid ecotope at Melkassa situated in the eastern part of the Rift Valley. To achieve the objective of the study rainfall-runoff measurements were made during 2003 and 2004 on 2 m x 2 m plots provided with a runoff measuring system and replicated 3 times for each treatment. There were 2 treatments: conventional tillage (CT) on which hand cultivation was practised in a way that simulated the normal local CT; and a flat surface simulating the no-till, undisturbed surface of the IRWH technique (NT). Rainfall-runoff measurements were made over 2 rainy seasons during which there were 25 storms with > 9 mm of rain. From the 25 storms, only the 2nd season storms (8 storms) had runoff measurements. These storms were used for calibration and validation of the Morin and Cluff (1980) runoff model (MC Model). Appropriate values for final infiltration rate (l∫), surface storage (s) and for the crusting parameter (γ) were found to be: 6 mm·h-1; 1.0 mm for NT and 6.0 mm for CT; 0.6 mm-1, respectively. The measured runoff(R) for the 2004 rainy season expressed as a fraction of the rainfall during the measuring period (P), i.e. R/P, gave values of 0.59 and 0.40 for the NT and CT treatments, respectively. There was a statistical difference between the runoff on the 2 treatments. Selected results from 7 years of field experiments with IRWH at Glen in South Africa were used together with measured maize yields and climate data over 16 seasons on the nearby Melkassa Experiment Station to estimate the yield benefits of IRWH compared to CT on the ecotope studied. The results ranged between 35 and 1 437 kg with a mean of 711 kg·ha-1 over the 16 years. At Melkassa this was an estimated yield increase ranging from 13% to 49%. The mean increase was 33%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the objectives, strategies and actions of the different actors that play a role in the implementation of rural development programmes is a key to explaining the latter's success and sustainability. Based on in-depth anthropological fieldwork and from an actor perspective this paper shows how the Rainwater Harvesting Pond Programme (RHPP) and the public work component of the Productive Safety Net Programme (PSNP) work out in practice in one district of the Tigray region in Ethiopia. Developers and farmers turn the two essentially unrelated rural development programmes into practically intertwined interventions, which leads to an undesirable set of outcomes. The RHPP's participants, who are conceived of as willing to improve, are favoured above other candidates for employment in the PSNP, which farmers compete for. Developers' and farmers' moves and countermoves result in targeting errors in the PSNP and in farmers massively constructing rainwater harvesting ponds, the large majority of which fail because farmers do not aspire to make them succeed, but merely see them as a stepping stone to employment in the PSNP In addition both groups' perception of each other is affected. Our observations challenge prevailing interpretations of the effects of development interventions on Tigrayan people's livelihoods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reservoir sedimentation is the most serious threat for water harvesting schemes and hydroelectric power dams in Ethiopia. Designing watershed conservation strategies and management is crucial to reduce the rate of sedimentation. Because different landscape types have varying potentials for enhancing erosion processes, site- and process-specific conservation measures are needed to target an appropriate intervention to the most needed locations. In this study, a GIS-based distributed soil erosion/deposition model was used to simulate the potential of land-use and cover (LUC) changes and conservation measures for reducing water induced soil erosion and potential sediment yield for two catchments in northern Ethiopia. LUC change and conservation measures targeted gully and stream buffers, protection of steep slopes and protection of areas with soil loss greater than a given threshold. The results show that land management measures targeted at hot-spot areas of erosion and gully formation could reduce potential annual sediment yield from catchments by approximately 60% compared with the current losses. The study demonstrates the potential of a GIS-based LUC-redesign approach as a tool for optimizing land-use and management strategies to reduce run-off and erosion rates in the highlands of northern Ethiopia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to shortage of rainfall and its increasing variability, moisture stress is identified to be one of the most critical factors affecting agricultural productivity in the drylands of Ethiopia. To circumvent this problem, a strategy of supplemental irrigation through surface water harvesting was adopted by the government and several micro-dams have been built in the semi-arid parts of the country. However, the benefits from the water harvesting schemes are not sustainable because of rapid water storage loss due to siltation. There is, therefore, an urgent need for improved catchment-based erosion control and sediment management strategies. The design and implementation of such strategies require data on the rate and magnitude of sediment deposition. To this end, reservoir surveys were conducted to estimate sediment deposition rate for 11 reservoirs identified to be representative of catchments in the Tigray region of northern Ethiopia. Two approaches were employed during the survey: one was based on measurement of sediment thickness in reservoirs while the other was based on comparing the original and existing topography of the reservoir-beds. The average annual sediment yield estimated for the study sites was about 19 t ha-1 y-1. An equation of the type SSY = 3.36A0.67 (with SSY = area specific sediment yield in t ha-1 y-1 and A = catchment area in km²) was also established for the study region, which is opposite to the 'universal' SSY- A relationship. In order to improve the sediment yield predictive capability of A, it was integrated with a factorial index that assesses the catchment's propensity to erosion and potential sediment yield. The effect of accelerated sediment deposition on water storage loss of reservoirs and possible controlling factors of the SSY-A relationship are outlined. The potential semi-quantitative scoring approach to characterize catchments in terms of erosion sensitivity and the significance of the A-index approach to predict SSY of similar catchments are also highlighted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]