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Hot pepper (Capsicum annum L.) is one of the most important vegetable crops produced in Ethiopia. However, production and productivity of the crop is far below the world average, which is mostly associated with soil fertility depletions as a result of inappropriate application of fertilizer. Therefore, this field experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of organic eco-green and inorganic nitrogen fertilizer on the growth and green pod yield of hot pepper during the growing season of 2019/2020. The experiment was designed in factorial combinations of four levels of N (0, 59, 82 and 105 kg ha−1) and four levels of eco-green (0, 75, 125 and 175 L ha−1) which were laid down in Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications. Results revealed that application of N and eco-green (EG) fertilizers very highly significantly (P < 0.001) influenced plant height, numbers of different levels of branches, days to 50% flowering, days to 50% pod setting, days to first harvest, marketable, unmarketable and total green pod yields. Generally, the combination of high levels of nitrogen and EG increased the growth parameters of hot pepper including plant height and number of branches. The highest marketable (17.98 t ha−1) and total green pod yield (18.19 t ha−1) of hot pepper were recorded from the treatment combinations of 59 kg N ha−1 and 125 litter EG ha−1. The same treatment combination had also recorded the highest net benefit (318,516.91 ETB ha−1) with acceptable marginal rate of return (1706%) which can be recommended for economical production of green hot pepper in the study area and areas with similar agro-ecology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated the magnitude of reservoir sedimentation upstream and its sediment-shadow effect on a large downstream-linked lake, Lake Tana (Ethiopia). To better understand the reservoir-induced reductions of fluvial sediment downstream, sediment budgets for two scenarios were developed. The results indicated that reservoir sedimentation is extremely high, with annual storage capacity losses (1–4.2%) exceeding the global average. Consequently, unless mitigation measures are implemented, the reservoirs' dead storage volume will be filled with sediment in less than 42% of their designed life expectancy. The sediment-trapping conditions created by the reservoirs will also reduce sediment inflow from tributaries into the lake by 15–52%, overbank sedimentation on floodplains by 33–48%, and sediment deposition in Lake Tana by 16–54% annually. Overall, under the current environmental set-up, the ongoing and planned reservoir constructions could extend the expected useful lifetime of Lake Tana from 918 to 2022 years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of soil amendments on soil respiration (SR) rate have not yet been fully evaluated. In the Upper Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia, we investigated seasonal variations in SR rates between and within soil amendments. We set up 24 plots with 8 treatments—polyacrylamide (PAM), gypsum (G), biochar (B), lime (L), control (C), PAM + L, PAM + G, and PAM + B—in 3 replicates. Soil temperature, moisture, and SR data were collected monthly. Data were evaluated by paired t-test and nonparametric repeated-measures ANOVA. The SR rates were significantly lower (P < 0.05) in PAM + B (3.43 ± 0.55 µmol m−2 s−1) than in B (4.23 ± 0.61 CO2 µmol m−2 s−1) and PAM + L (4.14 ± 0.57 µmol m−2 s−1). The SR rate differed significantly in all plots between the wet and dry seasons. The relationships between SR rate and soil properties were not significant, although there was a non-significant positive association with soil organic carbon, total nitrogen, soil pH, and clay content. There was a significant (P < 0.01) association between soil moisture and SR in all treatments. PAM + B offers a practical means of enhancing carbon storage efficiency. Comprehensive studies should be conducted in a variety of agroecological settings to determine optimal techniques to reduce SR emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We quantified the effects of Acacia decurrens (AD) on soil and runoff loss. • AD improved available P and total N and soil organic carbon contents. • Infiltration rate and understory vegetation biomass decrease with age of AD. • Surface runoff increased with the age of AD plantation. • AD plantation significantly reduced soil loss. Acacia decurrens (AD) plantations are increasingly used as an agroforestry practice in the humid Ethiopian highlands, mainly for their economic and ecological benefits. However, their effects on runoff response and soil loss with their growth are poorly understood. The main objective of this study was to examine the responses of runoff and soil loss with AD plantation age in a highland agroecological setting of Ethiopia. A field experiment was conducted during the rainy season in 2019 and 2020 using bounded runoff plots (30 m long × 3 m wide) installed on control and AD plantations of 1 to 4 years. The result showed that soil chemical properties (TN, SOC, and av. P) were improved in AD plots compared to the control. Surface runoff loss increased with the age of the AD plantation. Seasonal runoff was significantly higher (P < 0.01) in year 3 (456 mm) and year 4 (539 mm) AD plots in 2019 and 2020, respectively. This was mainly on account of decreases in understory vegetation biomass and soil infiltration rate and an increase in soil bulk density with AD plantation age. But at all growth stages of AD plantations, sediment concentration and soil loss were significantly reduced compared to the control (P <0.01). Our results imply a need to use suitable soil and water conservation measures such as trenches combined with AD plantations to reduce surface runoff loss and related effects downstream. However, the effects of AD on soil water content need to be revealed by further research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Short-term in situ charcoal production-induced changes in soil properties and crop productivity of acidic soil in Acacia decurrens-based taungya system were assessed in the Guder watershed of northwestern Ethiopia. Data were collected through field study, pot experiment and interviews with local farmers. The field study involved a survey of 36 paired charcoal production kiln sites and adjacent reference sites in 18 croplands to analyse soil physicochemical properties and productivity of tef (Eragrostis tef), barley (Hordeum vulgare) and wheat (Triticum aestivum). A pot experiment was undertaken with wheat to investigate seed germination and chemical fertilizer needs at charcoal production sites. Local farmers were interviewed for their perceptions and management practices. The production and short-term presence of charcoal in kiln sites significantly increased sand fraction, pH, organic carbon, available phosphorous, exchangeable Mg2+ and exchangeable K+ compared with the reference sites. Charcoal production practice raised pH by 0.83 units, organic carbon, available P and exchangeable K+ by 40%, 92% and 303%, respectively. Exchangeable acidity and exchangeable Al3+ were lowered by over 80% at kiln sites. Both aboveground biomass and grain yield of tef, barley and wheat were, on average, 135% higher at kiln sites than at the reference sites. Furthermore, crops grown at kiln sites were taller and had greener and larger leaves. Farmers' responses indicated higher crop productivity and reduced inorganic fertilizer application at kiln sites. Results from the pot experiment provided evidence of faster seed germination, enhanced crop productivity and reduced inorganic fertilizer needs in charcoal-treated soils. The study suggests that the inclusion of charcoal remnants and heating can increase carbon storage, improve soil properties which promote crop productivity and reduce the need for inorganic fertilizer in degraded, acidic agricultural soil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agricultural sustainability and land degradation can be monitored through studying soil nutrient dynamics. This study was conducted to investigate the balance and stocks of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) under major land use types and land management (LM) practices in three contrasting agroecological environments in Ethiopia. We employed a nutrient monitoring approach and assessed soil N and P inputs and outputs at watershed and plot scales. Field data were collected from 72 sites representative of the major land uses of the three watersheds for the watershed scale analysis. In addition to the watershed data, 16 experimental runoff plots were established and the response of nutrient balances to improved LM practices for the major land uses, including cropland with three treatments (control, farmyard manure [FYM] and soil bund), grazing land with three treatments (control, exclosure and FYM + exclosure) and bushland with two treatments (control and exclosure). Nutrient balances, flows and stocks varied significantly among agroecological settings, land-use types and LM practices. Severe and negative N balances were found in all agroecological environments, with midland (-70.8) > highland (-61.7) > lowland (-50.3 kg ha-1 yr-1), whereas slightly positive P balances were found in all agro-ecosystems. As a result, the midland (4.2% yr-1) and highland (2.1% yr-1) sites had greater N depletion rates than the lowland site (1.0% yr-1). Our results also demonstrated that applied LM practices improved N balances: by 32%-40% in cropland through FYM and mineral fertilizer, by 7%-18% in grazing land via FYM and exclosure, and by 6%-36% in degraded bushland via exclosure, implying that, implementing FYM and mineral fertilizer for cropland and implementing FYM with exclosure on non-croplands can reverse nutrient depletion in the study sites and in other areas having similar agroecological conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extension professionals are expected to help disseminate agricultural technologies, information, knowledge and skills to farmers. In order to develop valuable and long-lasting extension services, it is essential to understand the methods of extension that farmers find most beneficial. This understanding helps adopt improved practices, overcome barriers, provide targeted interventions and continuously improve agricultural extension programs. Thus, assessing factors affecting farmers' choice of agricultural extension methods is essential for developing extension methods that comply with farmers' needs and socio-economic conditions. Therefore, we analyzed the factors affecting farmers' preferences in extension methods, using cross-sectional data collected from 300 households in two sample districts and 16 Kebelles in Ethiopia between September 2019 and March 2020. Four extension methods, including training, demonstration, office visits and phone calls were considered as outcome variables. We fitted a multivariate probit model to estimate the factors that influence farmers' choice of extension methods. The results of the study showed that the number of dependents in the household head, formal education and membership of Idir (an informal insurance program a community or group runs to meet emergencies) were negatively associated with farmers' choices to participate in different extension methods compared to no extension. On the other hand, the sex of the household head, farm experience, participation in non-farm activities, monetary loan access, owning a mobile phone, radio access and membership of cooperatives were found to have a statistically significant positive impact on farmers' choices of extension methods. Based on these findings, the government and the concerned stakeholders should take farmers' socio-economic and institutional traits into account when selecting and commissioning agricultural extension methods. This could help to develop contextually relevant extension strategies that are more likely to be chosen and appreciated by farmers. Furthermore, such strategies can aid policymakers in designing extension programs that cater to farmers' needs and concerns. In conclusion, farmers' socio-economic and institutional affiliation should be taken into consideration when selecting agricultural extension methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Crop yield prediction before harvest is a key issue in managing agricultural policies and making the best decisions for the future. Using remote sensing techniques in yield estimation studies is one of the important steps for many countries to reach their agricultural targets. However, crop yield estimates rely on labor-intensive surveys in Ethiopia. To solve this, we used Sentinel-2, crop canopy analyzer, and ground-truthing data to estimate grain yield (GY) and aboveground biomass (AGB) of two major crops, teff and finger millet, in 2020 and 2021 in Ethiopia's Aba Gerima catchment. We performed a supervised classification of October Sentinel-2 images at the tillering stage. Among vegetation indices and leaf area index (LAI) used to predict teff and finger millet GY and AGB, the enhanced vegetation index (EVI) and normalized-difference VI (NDVI) provided the best fit to the data. NDVI and EVI most influenced teff AGB (R2 = 0.87; RMSE = 0.50 ton/ha) and GY (R2 = 0.84; RMSE = 0.14 ton/ha), and NDVI most influenced finger millet AGB (R2 = 0.87; RMSE = 0.98 ton/ha) and GY (R2 = 0.87; RMSE = 0.22 ton/ha). We found a close association between GY and AGB and the satellite EVI and NDVI. This demonstrates that satellite images can be employed in yield prediction studies. Our results show that satellite and crop canopy analyzer-based monitoring can facilitate the management of teff and finger millet to achieve high yields and more sustainable food production and environmental quality in the area. The results could be reproducible under similar study catchment conditions and boost crop yield. Extrapolation of the models to other areas requires local validation. To improve crop monitoring for farmers and reduce expenses, we suggest integrating time series Sentinel-2 images along with LAI obtained from crop canopy analyzers collected during the cropping season. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental transformations are the results of land-use and land-cover (LULC) changes. This study aims to investigate the LULC changes and associated factors in the Este District in northwestern Ethiopia, for the last four decades (the 1980s to 2020s). The land-use and land-cover classes were analyzed using supervised classification techniques in ERDASS IMAGINE 2015 and ArcGIS 10.3.1, categorizing the Landsat satellite images for 1984, 2000, and 2018 into six cover classes: settlement, forests-shrublands, cropland, grassland, bare land, and water body. We used a historical Google map, topo-sheets, and ancillary data to verify the classification accuracies for 1984, 2000, and 2018, respectively. The climate and demographic data were obtained from the Ethiopian Meteorological Station and Ethiopian Statistical Agency, respectively. In addition, data from key informant interviews and focus group discussions were also used to understand the local community experiences and perceptions toward LULC changes. The values of each LULC class were correlated with the demographic and climatic variables, using simple correlation analysis to evaluate the impact of demographic and climatic conditions on LULC changes. The analysis indicated that the least and largest classes of LULC in Este District were water bodies (mean cover = 1.9 km2) and croplands (mean cover = 791.7 km2), respectively. Cropland coverage increased by 2% in 2000, then decreased by 11% in 2018. Between 1984 and 2018, the grasslands and settlements increased by 22% and 0.5%, respectively. Half of the bare land and one-tenth of the forests-shrublands also decreased over the last four decades (the 1980s to 2020s). As a result, the original croplands and forests–shrublands classes (11% each) before 2000 were converted into new grasslands and croplands after 2018, respectively. The study indicated that precipitation, solar radiation, and population growth are the potential drivers, and the perceptions of local communities are nearly in line with the statistical analysis results. Alternative income sources, such as tourism and carbon trading and the participation in afforestation programs, could reverse the situation in the study area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pesticide use has increased in the Lake Tana sub-basin due to increased agricultural activity, potentially endangering nontargeted organisms. To assess its potential impact on fish health and fish-consuming human populations, pesticide concentrations in the fillet and liver tissue of three fish species, namely Labeobarbus megastoma, Labeobarbus tsanensis, and Oreochromis niloticus, were investigated in Lake Tana. Fish samples were taken from the lake near the rivers of Ribb and Gumara, which flow through agricultural areas where considerable amounts of pesticides have been applied. A total of 96 fish samples were collected. Liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) revealed the presence of ten pesticides. Pyrimethanil was frequently detected in 96% of liver and 65% of fillet samples at a median concentration of 33.9 µg kg−1 and 19.7 µg kg−1, respectively. The highest concentration of pyrimethanil was found in L. megastoma (1850.0 µg kg−1). Labeobarbus megastoma also had the highest concentration of oxamyl (507.0 µg kg−1) and flazasulfuron (60.1 µg kg−1) detected in the liver tissue. The highest concentration of carbaryl (56.5 µg kg−1) was found in the liver tissue of O. niloticus. Fish tissue samples from the two study sites contained pyrimethanil, oxamyl, carbaryl, and flazasulfuron. Only pyrimethanil showed a statistically significant difference between the two sites and the species L. megastoma and L. tsanensis. The amounts of pesticides found in the fish species pose no direct risk to the health of fish consumer human population. However, the results show that the lake ecosystem needs immediate attention and regular monitoring of the rising pesticide usage in the lake watershed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Changes in peak flow response time governed by rainfall and physical configurations of watersheds have been the topic of many studies, but other factors are also important. We aimed to analyze the dynamics in the lag time (TL) of peak flow for a tropical watershed (Kecha) and its sub‐watersheds (Dokmit, Zenjero Maderia, and Wotit Minch) in Ethiopia, as influenced by land‐use changes from 1982 to 2017 and the implementation of soil and water conservation (SWC) practices since 2011. Layered maps of land use, soil type, and SWC practices were used to determine the curve number, and the Natural Resource Conservation Service hydrologic model was used to estimate TL. We compared the estimated values against measured median values of TL for 30 rainfall–runoff events. The estimated TL of 1982, 2005, and 2017 varied from 9 to 19 min, 8 to 18 min, and 10 to 22 min, respectively, in the Dokmit, Zenjero Maderia, and Wotit Minch sub‐watersheds. The smallest (8 min) and greatest (22 min) values of TL were observed during 2005 and 2017, respectively. These results are likely attributable to the increased amount of cultivated area at the expense of bushland and forest in 2005 as compared to 1982, and the implementation of SWC practices in 2011–2017. Dokmit had the lowest TL values of the three sub‐watersheds, most likely because of its greater coverage of grazing and cultivated lands and degraded Nitic Luvisol. The variation in TL values among the sub‐watersheds was related to changes in both land use and SWC practices but also to the presence of degraded areas inherited from past human activities. Overall, such spatiotemporal flow response time analysis can provide useful information for the proper design of sustainable development strategies for particular niches in tropical regions of Ethiopia and elsewhere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Maize is one of the most important cereal food crops, and it can be grown all year in various agroecological zones. However, its vegetative growth and yield are susceptible to rainfall and temperature variability. As a result, the analysis of rainfall and temperature variability and trend was urgently needed in maize-growing agroecology zones to restructure the production system. The aim of the study was to examine rainfall and temperature variability and trends for developing a climate-resilient maize farming system in major agroecology zones in northwest Ethiopia. The study was implemented in low productive agroecology zones (LPZ), medium productive agroecology zones (MPZ), and high productive agroecology zones (HPZ) of northwest Ethiopia using daily time series climate data during the period 1987–2018. The coefficient of variation (CV), precipitation concentration index (PCI), rainfall anomaly index (RAI), and standardized precipitation (SPI) were applied to examine rainfall variability. Mann–Kendall's and Sen's slope estimator trend tests were used to detecting the statistical significance of changes in rainfall and temperature. Statistically significant increasing trends for annual maximum and minimum temperatures were recorded for all maize-producing agroecology zones. The mean annual temperature has exhibited a significant warming trend of 0.12 to 0.54°C per decade. The average annual rainfall has decreased by 38 to 67 mm per decade in all maize agroecology zones. Our research also showed that droughts now happen every one to three years; even consecutive droughts were seen in 2009, 2010, and 2011. For this reason, it could be required to develop a system of climate-resilient maize farming to address the issues of both global warming and the sub-Saharan countries that make up our study area. Climate-resilient maize agronomic activities have been determined by analyzing the onset, length of the growth period (LGP), and cessation date. Accordingly, the lower and upper quartiles of the date of onset of rainfall were in a range of May 9 to June 2, respectively; the length of the growth period (LGP) during the rainy season ranges from 97 to 232 days, and the cessation date of rainfall was November 1. Therefore, the short- to long-maturing maize varieties can be planted from May 9 to June 2 and can begin to be harvested in the first week of November under the current climatic circumstances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate extreme events have been observed more frequently since the 1970s throughout Ethiopia, which adversely affects the socio-economic development of the country, as its economy depends on agriculture, which, in turn, relies heavily on annual and seasonal rainfall. Climate extremes studies conducted in Ethiopia are mainly limited to a specific location or watershed, making it difficult to have insights at the national level. The present study thus aims to examine the observed climate extreme events in Ethiopia at both station and agro-ecological zone (AEZ) levels. Daily rainfall and temperature data for 47 and 37 stations, respectively (1986 up to 2020), were obtained from the National Meteorology Agency (NMA). The Modified Mann–Kendall (MMK) trend test and the Theil–Sen slope estimator were employed to estimate the trends in rainfall and temperature extremes. This study examines trends of 13 temperature and 10 rainfall extreme indices using RClimDex in R software. The results revealed that most of the extreme rainfall indices showed a positive trend in the majority of the climate stations. For example, an increase in consecutive dry days (CDD), very heavy rainfall days (R20), number of heavy rainfall days (R10) and consecutive wet days (CWD) were exhibited in most climate stations. In relation to AEZs, the greater number of extreme rainfall indices illustrated an upward trend in cool and sub-humid, cool and humid, and cool and moist AEZs, a declining trend in hot arid AEZ, and equal proportions of increasing and decreasing trends in warm semi-arid AEZs. Concerning extreme temperature indices, the result indicated an increasing trend of warm temperature extreme indices and a downward trend of cold temperature extreme indices in most of the climate stations, indicating the overall warming and dryness trends in the country. With reference to AEZs, an overall warming was exhibited in all AEZs, except in the hot arid AEZ. The observed trends in the rainfall and temperature extremes will have tremendous direct and indirect impacts on agriculture, water resources, health, and other sectors in the country. Therefore, the findings suggest the need for identifying and developing climate change adaptation strategies to minimize the ill effects of these extreme climate events on the social, economic, and developmental sectors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spatiotemporal studies of the annual and seasonal climate variability and trend on an agroecological spatial scale for establishing a climate-resilient maize farming system have not yet been conducted in Ethiopia. The study was carried out in three major agroecological zones in northwest Ethiopia using climate data from 1987 to 2018. The coefficient of variation (CV), precipitation concertation index (PCI), and rainfall anomaly index (RAI) were used to analyze the variability of rainfall. The Mann-Kendall test and Sen's slope estimator were also applied to estimate trends and slopes of changes in rainfall and temperature. High-significance warming trends in the maximum and minimum temperatures were shown in the highland and lowland agroecology zones, respectively. Rainfall has also demonstrated a maximum declining trend throughout the keremt season in the highland agroecology zone. However, rainfall distribution has become more unpredictable in the Bega and Belg seasons. Climate-resilient maize agronomic activities have been determined by analyzing the onset and cessation dates and the length of the growth period (LGP). The rainy season begins between May 8 and June 3 and finishes between October 26 and November 16. The length of the growth period (LGP) during the rainy season ranges from 94 to 229 days. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The temporal dynamics of soil respiration change in response to different land management practices are not well documented. This study investigated the effects of soil bunds on the monthly and diurnal dynamics of soil respiration rates in the highlands of the Upper Blue Nile basin in Ethiopia. Six plots (with and without soil bunds, three replicates) were used for measurement of seasonal soil respiration, and 18 plots were used for measurement of diurnal soil respiration. We collected seasonal variation data on a monthly basis from September 2020 to August 2021. Diurnal soil respiration data were collected four times daily (5 a.m., 11 a.m., 5 p.m., and 11 p.m.) for 2 weeks from 16 to 29 September 2021. A Wilcoxon signed-rank test showed that seasonal soil respiration rates differed significantly (p < 0.05) between soil bund and control plots in all seasons. In plots with soil bunds, seasonal soil respiration rates were lowest in February (1.89 ± 0.3 µmol CO2 m–2 s–1, mean ± SE) and highest in October (14.54 ± 0.5 µmol CO2 m–2 s–1). The diurnal soil respiration rate was significantly (p < 0.05) higher at 11 a.m. than at other times, and was lowest at 5 a.m. Seasonal variation in soil respiration was influenced by soil temperature negatively and moisture positively. Diurnal soil respiration was significantly affected by soil temperature but not by soil moisture. Further study is required to explore how differences in soil microorganisms between different land management practices affect soil respiration rates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Managing soils for improved agricultural production requires information on soil fertility status. Our objective was to map for better soil management in Ethiopia and determine their spatial correlation at a separation distance of 29 m. We collected 82 soil samples (0-20 cm depth) at 560 ha of land and determined pH, Olsen extractable phosphorus (Olsen-P), and organic carbon (OC). We then interpolated between sample points (ordinary kriging-OK and distance weighting-IDW [inverse distance weighting]) to evaluate spatial dependence. Olsen-P ranged from 2.68-42 mg/kg and exhibited high variability with a coefficient of variation (CV) =35%. Conversely, soil pH showed low variability (CV = 15%) and ranging from 4.84 to 6.81. Soil OC content varied from 0.81% to 3.17%. The IDW (R2 = 0.86; RMSE = 0.019) outperformed the OK. The semivariogram results indicate a strong dependence for pH and OC for spherical, exponential, and Gaussian models, while moderately spatially auto correlated for Olsen-P for all models. The IDW and OK predict the spatial variability of the pH (moderately acidic), Olsen-P (low), and OC (very low) contents. The soil maps may help to improve soil management alternatives, increase crop productivity, and secure environmental quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An accurate crop yield forecast at a reasonable cost is required for increasing production and securing food. Therefore, spectral reflectance was measured with a spectroradiometer (k 350-2500 nm) to predict grain yield (GY) and aboveground biomass yield (ABY) of teff and finger millet in Ethiopia. We calculated six spectral vegetation indices (SVIs): enhanced vegetation index (EVI), normalized difference VI (NDVI), soil-adjusted VI (SAVI), green (GNDVI), green chlorophyll VI (GCVI), and simple ratio (SR). Linear regression models fitted validation data with coefficient of determination (R2 ) of 0.73, and root mean square error (RMSE) of 0.11 for teff GY, R2 of 0.45 and RMSE of 0.52 for teff ABY, R2 of 0.92 and RMSE of 0.22 for finger millet GY, and R2 of 0.90 and RMSE of 0.24 for finger millet ABY. The study demonstrates the potential of spectroradiometer-derived SVIs to predict finger millet and teff production in the catchment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Polyacrylamide (PAM) mitigates soil nutrient depletion and increases nutrient utilization; however, the effect of PAM combined with other amendments have not been tested much under field condition. The objective of our study was, therefore, to identify the best combination of amendments that can improve soil nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) balances while maximizing utilization efficiency and profitability under teff cultivation. A field experiment was carried out for 2 years in the midland agroecology of Ethiopia. A total of 24 experimental plots were designed using RCBD with three replications. The treatments were PAM (40 kg ha−1), biochar (B = 8 t ha−1), lime (L = 4 t ha−1), gypsum (G = 5 t ha−1), PAM+B, PAM+L, PAM+G, and a control. N and P inflows from atmospheric deposition, biological fixation, and fertilizers; and outflows by water erosion, leaching, gaseous emissions, and harvested products were monitored in all plots via NUTrient MONitoring approach. Results showed that all the applied soil amendments improved nutrient balances (8–134%) compared with the control. Of the measured outflows, harvested products (43–60%) and water erosion (14–31%) were the major contributors to N depletion, followed by leaching (15–23%) and gaseous emissions (11–13%). Among the soil amendments, PAM+L appreciably reduced P loss from water erosion (61%); and N losses from erosion, leaching, and emissions by 55, 10, and 3%, respectively; and increased N use efficiency by 31% compared with the control. Moreover, PAM+L provided a net benefit much higher compared with others. Thus, application of PAM+L would be an effective strategy for sustainable agriculture, especially in acidic and degraded dryland areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Integrating farmyard manure (FYM) and legume intercropping improves soil chemical and microbial properties, thereby increasing forage productivity and nutritional value. The purpose of this study was to evaluate how fertilizer treatments affected the chemical composition, in vitro gas production and organic matter digestibility (IVOMD), and volatile fatty acid production (VFA) of Napier and desho grasses in the upper Blue Nile basin of Ethiopia. Apart from ether extract content, the chemical composition of the fertilizer treatments in the Aba Gerima watershed did not differ significantly, whereas significant differences were observed in acid detergent fiber and crude protein contents at the Guder watershed. In both watersheds, Napier grass had significantly higher crude protein levels than desho grass. In Aba Gerima, ash content was significantly higher in 2018 than in 2019, but not in Guder. For Napier and desho grasses, there were an increment in IVOMD (6.7 vs 4.7%), metabolizable energy (5.5 vs 4.5%), and VFA production (23.1 vs 3.0%) in the Desmodium intortum plus FYM treatment than in the control in Aba Gerima. In Guder, however, IVOMD (13.7 vs 4.6%), metabolizable energy (13.3 vs 3.3%), and VFA production (11.2 vs 5.6%) increased in the same treatment for Napier and desho grasses than in the control. This study suggests that the Desmodium intortum plus FYM improves the nutritional value, IVOMD, and VFA production of Napier and desho grasses in dryland areas of the upper Blue Nile basin, facilitating their growth as alternative livestock feed for better production in these areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bread wheat is one of the most important staple crops in Ethiopia and it is largely produced by smallholder farmers in the highlands of the country. Its productivity is, however, very low below the world average mainly due to the dwindling of soil productivity and depletion of soil fertility as the result of complete removal of crop residues as well as abandoning of crop rotation and organic matter application. Hence, a 3 years experiment was conducted to study the productivity improvement of bread wheat through crop rotation and organic manure application in degraded crop fields of Ethiopian highlands. Both at station and on-farm sites, factorial combinations of five crop rotations (R1+ = bread wheat–clover–potato, R2+ = clover–bread wheat undersowing lupine–potato, R3+ = potato–clover–bread wheat, R4+ = bread wheat undersowing lupine–potato undersowing lupine–bread wheat and R5+ = lupine–potato undersowing lupine–bread wheat) and four manure application rates [M1 = control/without manure, M2 = 2.5 t ha−1 Sesbania green manure (SGM), M3 = 5 t ha−1 fresh cattle manure (FCM) and M4 = 2.5 t ha−1 SGM + 5 t ha−1 FCM] were laid out in a randomized complete block design with four replications. Crop rotation treatments with plus sign (+) indicated that crop residues and/or green manure of preceding crops were incorporated into the soil. Sole bread wheat crop (R1) without manure application (M1) in the first year (2013) was considered as the control and baseline of the study. Results of the study clearly showed that the interaction of R3+ and M4 in 3 years period (2013–2015) enabled to recover the highest grain productivity of bread wheat from 0.95 and 0.69 to 4.83 and 4.14 t ha−1 with the percentile increments of 408.42 and 500.00% at station and on-farm sites, respectively. Thus, long-term application of organic manure with moderate quantity and incorporation of crop residues in pragmatic crop rotation of a vigorous legume before wheat have great potentials for recovering the productivity of bread wheat in degraded crop fields. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As classical soil analysis is time-consuming and expensive, there is a growing demand for visible, near-infrared, and short-wave infrared (Vis-NIR-SWIR, wavelength 350–2500 nm) spectroscopy to predict soil properties. The objectives of this study were to investigate the effects of soil bunds on key soil properties and to develop regression models based on the Vis-NIR-SWIR spectral reflectance of soils in Aba Gerima, Ethiopia. Soil samples were collected from the 0–30 cm soil layer in 48 experimental teff (Eragrostis tef) plots and analysed for soil texture, pH, organic carbon (OC), total nitrogen (TN), available phosphorus (av. P), and potassium (av. K). We measured reflectance from air-dried, ground, and sieved soils with a FieldSpec 4 Spectroradiometer. We used regression models to identify and predict soil properties, as assessed by the coefficient of determination (R2), root mean square error (RMSE), bias, and ratio of performance to deviation (RPD). The results showed high variability (CV ≥ 35%) and substantial variation (P < 0.05 to P < 0.001) in soil texture, OC, and av. P in the catchment. Soil reflectance was lower from bunded plots. The pre-processing techniques, including multiplicative scatter correction, median filter, and Gaussian filter for OC, clay, and sand, respectively were used to transform the soil reflectance. Statistical results were: R2 = 0.71, RPD = 8.13 and bias = 0.12 for OC; R2 = 0.93, RPD = 2.21, bias = 0.94 for clay; and R2 = 0.85 with RPD = 7.54 and bias = 0.0.31 for sand with validation dataset. However, care is essential before applying the models to other regions. In conclusion, the findings of this study suggest spectroradiometry can supplement classical soil analysis. However, more research is needed to increase the prediction performance of Vis-NIR-SWIR reflectance spectroscopy to advance soil management interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Crop yield prediction provides information to policymakers in the agricultural production system. This study used leaf reflectance from a spectroradiometer to model grain yield (GY) and aboveground biomass yield (ABY) of maize (Zea mays L.) at Aba Gerima catchment, Ethiopia. A FieldSpec IV (350–2,500 nm wavelengths) spectroradiometer was used to estimate the spectral reflectance of crop leaves during the grain-filling phase. The spectral vegetation indices, such as enhanced vegetation index (EVI), normalized difference VI (NDVI), green NDVI (GNDVI), soil adjusted VI, red NDVI, and simple ratio were deduced from the spectral reflectance. We used regression analyses to identify and predict GY and ABY at the catchment level. The coefficient of determination (R2), the root mean square error (RMSE), and relative importance (RI) were used for evaluating model performance. The findings revealed that the best-fitting curve was obtained between GY and NDVI (R2 = 0.70; RMSE = 0.065; P < 0.0001; RI = 0.19), followed by EVI (R2 = 0.65; RMSE = 0.024; RI = 0.61; P < 0.0001). While the best-fitting curve was obtained between ABY and GNDVI (R2 = 0.71; RI = 0.24; P < 0.0001), followed by NDVI (R2 = 0.77; RI = 0.17; P < 0.0001). The highest GY (7.18 ton/ha) and ABY (18.71 ton/ha) of maize were recorded at a soil bunded plot on a gentle slope. Combined spectral indices were also employed to predict GY with R2 (0.83) and RMSE (0.24) and ABY with R2 (0.78) and RMSE (0.12). Thus, the maize's GY and ABY can be predicted with acceptable accuracy using spectral reflectance indices derived from spectroradiometer in an area like the Aba Gerima catchment. An estimation model of crop yields could help policy-makers in identifying yield-limiting factors and achieve decisive actions to get better crop yields and food security for Ethiopia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Land degradation due to soil erosion presents a major challenge for sustainable development. We investigated run‐off and sediment yield (SY) dynamics in the northwestern highlands of Ethiopia. The study area included 14 zero‐order catchments with a surface area ranging from 324 to 1715 m2. V‐notch weirs produced from plastic jars were introduced as measuring alternatives that met local constraints. Run‐off (RO) depth at the weir was registered manually at 5‐min intervals during two rainy seasons in 2018 and 2019, and a total of 618 events were monitored. Rainfall was measured using tipping‐bucket rain gauges. RO samples were collected in 1‐L bottles, and suspended sediment concentration was determined. The mean event RO coefficient ranged from 3% for forests to 56% for badlands. Similarly, the mean annual SY was lowest for forests (0.8 Mg ha−1 yr−1) and highest for badlands (43.4 Mg ha−1 yr−1), with significant differences among land‐use types (14.8 Mg ha−1 yr−1 in cropland, 5.7 Mg ha−1 yr−1 in grazing land, and 2.9 Mg ha−1 yr−1 in plantations). Soil organic matter (SOM) reduced RO and SY, necessitating the consideration of agronomic and land management practices that enhance SOM. Annual SY decreased exponentially with the rock fragment cover (RFC). In fields where RFC was less than 20%, collecting rock fragments for installing stone bunds resulted in a net increase in SY. Rehabilitating badlands and enhancing SOM content in croplands can substantially reduce catchment SY and hence contribute to the sustainability of land uses in the subhumid highlands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Production of value-added outputs from biomass residues represents an opportunity to increase the supply of renewable energy in Ethiopia. Particularly, agroforestry could provide biomass residues for improved bioenergy products. The aim of this study was to characterize the interest of growers to provide biomass residues to a hypothetical biomass feedstock market. This study relied on a survey conducted on a sample of 240 farmers. Although the awareness of potential biomass products was generally quite low, a majority of farmers expressed interest in supplying biomass residues, but the level of interest depended on certain individual socio-economic and demographic characteristics. For example, younger and female household heads were found to be more interested in participating in the hypothetical biomass market, as were households with an improved biomass stove, larger land holdings, and higher income levels. In addition, larger households and those that felt less vulnerable to firewood scarcity also expressed more interest. As a whole, the results imply that farmers, particularly those with younger and female heads of households, should be supported with programs tailored to ensure their inclusion in biomass supply chains. Respondents generally preferred farm-gate sales of biomass, so the collecting, baling, and transporting of woody residues need to be properly incentivized or new actors need to be recruited into the supply chain. Providing households with energy-efficient tools such as improved stoves would not only increase demand for biomass products, but also increase the amount of biomass residues that could be supplied to the market instead of used at home. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on extensive field information, farmer-led small-scale irrigation systems along the dam-regulated Tekeze River is investigated and the likelihood of future irrigation expansion within the area with modelled potential is discussed, considering facilitating and hampering factors. Due to dam-induced hydrologic alterations, downstream socio-ecological systems have strongly transformed as the irrigated area has quadrupled and the post-dam potential for perennial crop cultivation has attracted numerous migrant investors to the area, inducing inequalities but also providing opportunities. Future dam construction should involve tailored policy interventions to facilitate irrigation expansion, while safeguarding equal and sustainable access to water and land. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the spatial relationship between land cover change and its drivers at varying scale in Mt. Guna. The recent land cover map was generated from Google Earth Image (2018), and the historical land cover map generated from the 1957 and 1980 aerial photos. Multi‐scale geographically weighted regression (GWR) and ordinary least square (OLS) were used to model the spatial relationship between land cover change and its drivers at varying scale. The change analysis revealed that Mt. Guna showed a dynamic land cover change between 1957 and 2018 dominated by conversions into cropland. Overall, 69% of the land cover change shows gains and losses, while 31% of the land cover of Mt. Guna showed persistence over 61 years. Furthermore, 77% of land cover was swapped and changed from its initial state. The result of modelling the spatial relationship between land cover change and its drivers showed that population density, slope gradient and clustered homestead density increases the likelihood of land cover change, while higher elevation, water source density and precipitation reduces the likelihood of land cover change. However, the spatial scale comparison indicated that the influence is stronger in large spatial scales than in small scales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gully erosion is a major cause of soil loss and severe land degradation in sub‐humid Ethiopia. The objective of this study was to investigate the role and the effect of subsurface water level change on gully headcut retreat, gully formation and expansion in high rainfall tropical regions in the Ethiopian highlands. During the rainy seasons of 2017–2019, the expansion rate of 16 fixed gullies was measured and subsurface water levels were measured by piezometers installed near gully heads. During the study period, headcut retreats ranged from 0.70 to 2.35 m, with a mean value of 1.49 ± 0.56 m year−1, and average depth of the surface water level varied between 1.12 and 2.82 m, with a mean value of 2.62 m. Gully cross‐section areas ranged from 2.90 to 20.90 m2, with an average of 9.31 ± 4.80 m2. Volumetric retreat of gully headcuts ranged from 4.49 to 40.55 m3 and averaged 13.34 ± 9.10 m3. Soil loss from individual gullies ranged from 5.79 to 52.31 t year−1 and averaged 17.21 ± 11.74 t year−1. The headcut retreat rate and sediment yield were closely related over the three study seasons. Elevated subsurface water levels facilitated the slumping of gully banks and heads, causing high sediment yield. When the soil was saturated, bank collapse and headcut retreat were favoured by the combination of elevated subsurface water and high rainfall. This study indicates that area exclosures are effective in controlling subsurface water level, thus reducing gully headcut retreat and associated soil loss. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cover and management (C) and support practice (P) are the most dynamic factors of the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation- a widely used model to estimate mean annual soil loss. The aim of this study was, therefore, to determine C- and P-factors for four land management practices and three land use types in three agro-ecologies: Guder (highland), Aba Gerima (midland), and Dibatie (lowland) through selecting a rainfall erosivity (R)-factor model. We collected two seasons' daily soil loss data from 42 runoff plots. Compared to the control, the P-factor in cropland ranged from 0.15 to 0.53 for soil bund, 0.18 to 0.5 for fanya juu, and 0.06 to 0.44 for soil bund with grass; and in non-cropland plots from 0.03 to 0.42 for trench with exclosure. The C-factor ranged from 0.004 for teff to 0.64 for chili pepper in crop land; and from 0.001 in degraded bushland to 0.49 in grassland for non-cropland. Overall, the average P-values decreased in the order midland > highland > lowland for cropland plots and highland > lowland > midland for non-cropland plots. Accurate determination of C- and P- factor values for the local conditions helps greatly improve soil loss prediction in this basin and other similar regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sustainable land management (SLM) practices for curbing the effects of land degradation, mainly in drought-prone areas, have been addressed by the community-based watershed development (CBWD) scheme since the 1980s in Ethiopia. However, the scheme has failed to consider farmers' potential willingness to pay (WTP) for SLM practices, as well as basic biophysical, socioeconomic, and institutional factors. This study estimated farmers' potential WTP (in terms of labor) and analyzed the drivers behind it in the Upper Blue Nile basin in Ethiopia. A contingent valuation method and Tobit econometric model were used to analyze survey data from 300 household heads. About 76% of the farmers said they would be willing to contribute labor (3.5–28 man-days yr−1), but the mean WTP (9.4 man-days yr−1) of the three watersheds was less than the set government value (28 man-days yr−1). The farmers' WTP aggregate benefit at the watershed scale was estimated to be US$55,572 yr−1. The econometric model results revealed that sex, age group, farmland size, SLM-related training, and household perception of land degradation influenced farmers' potential WTP. To this end, revising the current CBWD scheme by considering various aspects of farmers' WTP would help to make the scheme demand-driven. Moreover, the provision of gender- and resource-disaggregated training and the introduction of economic incentives to increase the economic productivity of SLM practices would enhance farmers' maximum WTP capacity and assure sustainable community participation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Currently, the unchecked increase in human population results in increased demand for agricultural lands. Growing two or more crops simultaneously is one of the mechanisms to reduce this problem. A field experiment was conducted in northwestern Ethiopia during 2017 and 2018 cropping seasons. Two legume crops [haricot bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) and lupine (Lupinus angustifolius)] were intercropped with finger millet (Eleusine coracana) using two intercrop planting methods (row and mixture) and three finger millet-legume planting ratios (100.0%:75.0%, 100.0%:50.0% and 100.0%:25.0% of the respective recommended seed rate of sole crops). Two sole crop finger millets (planted in rows and broadcast) and two sole legume crops (haricot bean and lupine) were included as checks. The experiment comprised a randomized complete block design with three replications. Results indicated intercropped finger millet and total land output yield from finger millet-haricot bean row intercropping at a 100:50 planting ratio and sole finger millet planted in a row improved better yield stability. Finger millet-haricot bean row intercropping at a 100:50 planting ratio also resulted in higher grain yields of the component crops, area time equivalent ratio (1.34), relative production (38.1%) and economic (314.0%) efficiencies with a relatively lower component crop competitive ratio. Thus, this cropping system offered increased productivity and economic return and is a viable option for increasing household food security. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two sets of field experiments under seedling transplanting and drill row seed planting methods were conducted side by side for two years during the main cropping seasons of 2017 and 2018 in Fogera Plain of northwest Ethiopia to study the effect of different sources, application methods and time of nitrogen fertilizer on growth and yield of rain-fed lowland rice. Three N sources of fertilizers (conventional Urea, Urea super-granule, and slow-release Urea) with six, one, and three application methods and times, respectively were laid out in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) in three replicates. These treatments and design were equally applied for two sets of experiments under both planting methods. Results revealed that soil-plant analysis development (SPAD) value, LAI, and biomass and grain yields of rain-fed lowland rice were highest with Urea supergranule N fertilizer sources followed by slow-release Urea and conventional Urea applications in both planting methods. Average grain yields of 3.7 and 3.8 tons ha−1 of rain-fed lowland rice were recorded with the application of Urea supergranule N source fertilizer under seedling transplanting and drill row seed planting methods, respectively. Hence, using Urea supergranule tablet is recommendable for getting better grain yield of rain-fed lowland rice without yield penalty in both planting methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rice productivity in Fogera Plain of Ethiopia is low due to poor soil nitrogen management. A field experiment was conducted for two years during the main cropping seasons of 2017 and 2018 in Fogera Plain to study the effect of N fertilizer rates and application methods on productivity and nitrogen use efficiency of lowland rice. The experiment was conducted using a factorial arrangement of six levels of N rates (46, 92, 138, 184, 230, and 276 kg N ha−1) and two levels of application methods (farmers' practice and mud-balls form) with the control, laid out in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) in three replicates. Results revealed that N rates had a significant effect on the growth, biomass and grain yields, and N use efficiency of rice. Interaction effects of application methods by N rates had only a significant effect on N use efficiency of rice. Generally, rain-fed lowland rice grain yield (4.2–5.2 tons ha−1) positively responded to fertilizer N rates from 138 to 276 kg ha−1. Nitrogen use efficiency was highest at the low and intermediate levels of N and low on highest levels of N. From this study, mud-balls making Urea is a tedious and labor intensive work. Rather, hence, nitrogen use efficient methods of Urea supergranule tablet should be used based on the recommended 276 kg ha−1 nitrogen rate to exploit more grain yield of rain-fed lowland rice without yield penalty in Fogera Plain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As stated in the 2018 global Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) report, Ethiopia has the second largest multidimensionally poor population in Africa (after Nigeria). The global MPI was created to measure household's multiple deprivations, but little systematic study has been carried out on the application of MPI measures on a smaller scale and vis-à-vis other measures of poverty. In addition, most of the few existing studies ignore any measure of inequality amongst the multidimensionally poor. This study explored multidimensional poverty in three different drought-prone agro-ecological settings of the Upper Blue Nile basin, Ethiopia. A preliminary participatory exercise was carried out at the study sites to select important indicators and then a structured survey was administered to 390 systematically and randomly selected households. The Alkire–Foster method was used to analyse multidimensional poverty and verified it with Correlation Sensitive Poverty Index (CSPI). Multidimensional poverty incidence, adjusted head count ratio and inequality were significantly different between study sites (p < 0.001). Results indicated a high incidence (88%, 82% and 80%), intensity (52%, 55% and 56%), MPI (46%, 45% and 45%) and inequality (53%, 60% and 63%) of poverty in Aba Gerima, Guder and Dibatie study sites, respectively. A high level of divergence was revealed between the MPI and CSPI in terms of identifying the poor. The living standard and land and livestock ownership dimensions contributed the most to MPI. The case study signifies the importance of inclusion of land and livestock indicators for the national MPI. Besides, it implies that researchers and policymakers need to account for smaller scale contextualised indicators and location differences when studying and designing anti-poverty interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poor soil fertility status due to erosion, intensive farming, and leaching of nutrients causes food insecurity in Ethiopia. Hence, estimating soil fertility status using different measurements is very essential to secure food insecurity. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of land management on soil fertility using a nutrient balance approach at Kecha and Laguna micro watersheds in 2016. Plant nutrient losses were estimated through measuring discharge and sediment loads coming from the treated (Kecha) and untreated (Laguna) catchments. A total of 40 bulk sediment and water samples were collected on a monthly basis. The inputs used in the two catchments, inorganic fertilizer and organic manure, were quantified through interviews using a semi-structured questionnaire. Plant samples were collected from 92 plots for determining grain yield (OUT1) and straw biomass (OUT2). Other inputs and outputs were calculated using a transfer function. From sediment, grain and straw samples, NPK contents were determined. The nutrient balances were found to be −89.37, −23.66 and −124.75 NPK kg/ha, and −112.41, −20.62 and −130.26 NPK for Kecha and Laguna, respectively. The main paths for these negative balances were residue removal and soil losses. Higher nutrient losses were observed in Laguna than Kecha watershed; this may be due to lack of soil management practices, crop rotation and planting of leguminous plants. Therefore, soil management practices should be done to reduce these higher losses of plant nutrients, and maintain crop residues in the farm so that nutrient recycling and better soil fertility can be achieved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Potentials of pragmatic crop rotation practices and organic matter applications for restoration of soil health and productivity of degraded highland crop fields were studied for three rotation phases from 2013 to 2015 in northwest Ethiopia. Factorial combinations of five crop rotations (R1+ = bread wheat–clover–potato, R2+ = clover–bread wheat undersowing lupine–potato, R3+ = potato–clover–bread wheat, R4+ = bread wheat undersowing lupine–potato undersowing lupine–bread wheat, and R5+ = lupine–potato undersowing lupine–bread wheat) and four manure application rates [M1 = control/0tha−1 manure, M2 = 2.5 tha−1 sesbania green manure (SGM), M3 = 5 tha−1 fresh cattle manure (FCM), and M4 = 2.5 tha−1 SGM + 5 tha−1 FCM] were laid out in randomized complete block design (RCBD) with four replications. Plus sign (+) with crop rotation indicated that crop residues and green manure of legumes at 50% flowering were incorporated into the soil. The results showed that soil properties and productivity of crops were markedly improved with three-year interventions of crop rotation and manure application. As compared to that of the initial before starting the experiment, soil bulk density, pH, CEC, and contents of organic carbon, total nitrogen, available phosphorous, and exchangeable potassium were improved on average by about 23%, 18%, 67%, 89%, 150%, 89%, and 44%, respectively, with R1+M4 treatment combination in three-year period. Similarly, compared to that of 2013, productivity of bread wheat and potato increased on average by about 446% and 540% in 2015 with R3M4 and R1M4, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nitrogen fixation by legumes like faba bean is a cheap way of fixing atmospheric nitrogen to plant available form. However, the inoculation of grain legumes with rhizobium bacteria along with the addition of micronutrients is poorly researched in Amhara Region of Ethiopia. Thus a study to examine the effects of rhizobium leguminosarum (var vicae) strains and micronutrients on nodulation, growth, and yield of faba bean was conducted in Wereillu district of Amhara Region, Ethiopia during the rainy season of 2018. The treatments comprised three faba bean strains (un-inoculated, EAL-1018, EAL-1035 and EAL-17) and two micro nutrients (without, zinc, boron) arranged in a randomized complete block design with three replications. The collected data on yield and yield-related parameters were analyzed using Statistical Analysis System (2003), version 9.1 and subjected to Duncan's Multiple Range Test for mean separation when the analysis of variance was significant. The mean separation revealed that the combined effect of EAL-1018 and boron brought significantly (P ≤ 0.05) higher difference on nodule number, nodulation volume, nodule dry weight, biomass yield and grain yield compared to the control. The combined effect of faba bean strain, EAL-1018 and boron gave 65.9% grain yield advantage over the control and 13.9% compared to the second promising treatment (EAL-1018 alone). Hence, EAL-1018 combined with boron is recommended for the study area and similar agro-ecologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Remote sensing data can be used to improve our understanding of environmental change over longer periods. Here, we used a series of orthorectified aerial photographs of 1938–1940 and 1957 and recent satellite images of 2014–2016 to explore trends and patterns of woody vegetation cover in the Lake Tana Basin of northwestern Ethiopia, and to understand how land cover changes influence gully dynamics. Woody vegetation was mapped using a supervised image classification and gully networks were mapped on-screen from randomly chosen sites distributed across the region. Woody vegetation cover has drastically changed over the past 78 years. From an overall cover of about 20% in 1938–1940 and 1957, woody vegetation cover dropped to 9.8% in 2014–2016. Areas that were subjected to agricultural extensification saw woody vegetation cover drop by nearly 70%. Paddock trees, woodlots, and forests have largely been transformed into cropland. Remarkably, most valley bottoms were vegetated in 1938–1957. Concomitant to the woody vegetation loss, gully networks expanded over the study period. From 1938–1957 to 2014–2016, gully density increased from 0.5–1 to 1.9 km km−2. The interrelation between both was most remarkable for valley bottoms, where the loss of woody vegetation has been paralleled by the development of gully networks and multiplication of gully heads. Based on visual observations, we hypothesize that as part of indigenous knowledge on erosion control, past societies may have allowed vegetation regrowth in valley bottoms to protect against erosion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was conducted to investigate technical and socio-political attributes that lead to the underperformance of two selected irrigation schemes (Shina and Bebeks) in the Lake Tana floodplains, Ethiopia. Irrigation application efficiency (AE) at nine experimental fields showed a wide range, from 20 to 80%, but was mostly between 40 and 60%. Irrigation water-use efficiency (IWUE) varied from 1.9 to 7.2 kg m−3 for onion and 0.9 to 1.2 kg m−3 for maize. The lined and earthen canal conveyance losses in Bebeks were 0.037 and 0.047 l s−1 m−1, whereas in Shina they were 0.033 and 0.044 l s−1 m−1, respectively. The overall consumed ratio (OCR) of water was 0.58 for Bebeks and varied from 0.73 to 1.2 in Shina. Both schemes are performing below the standard based on technical performance indicators. Irrigation water user associations (WUAs) were not implemented, but irrigation committees (ICs), composed of local political leaders, are managing both schemes. Canal and reservoir sedimentation from erosion of upstream catchment areas during the rainy season was the major problem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Dangerously high increases in discharge have led to the drowning of 250 people. • Impacts on rural livelihoods are overshadowed by national development goals. • External costs are borne by local people, with low bargaining power. • The EIA of the Beles hydropower project is considered a formality and is unfindable. • In-depth post-analyses of hydropower projects should be mandatory. Abstract Despite public awareness of unintended impacts (1980s) and well-developed international standards (2000s), downstream impacts of large hydropower projects still very often are not properly assessed. Impacts of (hydropower-regulated) interbasin water transfers (IBWTs) are considered self-evidently positive, although they can have far-reaching consequences for hydrogeomorphological systems and consequently river-dependent communities. In this study, the downstream direct and indirect impacts of the Ethiopian hydropower-regulated Tana-Beles IBWT are evaluated in an interdisciplinary way. The components of the framework of rural livelihoods are considered and changing contexts, resources' availabilities and livelihood strategies are analysed. Mixed methods are applied, combining hydrogeomorphological field observations, GIS analyses, scientific literature, policy documents, and semi-structured interviews with local people and local to federal authorities. Results show that the IBWT drastically increased the Beles river's discharge (with an average release of +92 m3 s−1 at the outlet; *2 in rainy season and *12 in dry season 100 km downstream of the water release) and introduced dangerous situations for local communities (over 250 people drowned in the river). River bank erosion resulted in the uncompensated loss of farmland (163 ha) and the establishment of large-scale commercial farms increased the pressure on land and led to the impoverishment of displaced communities (4310 households). The project was implemented top-down, without any transparency, benefit sharing or compensation for external costs. This stresses the importance of downstream interdisciplinary impact assessments and highlights the need for decent in-depth ex post-analyses of hydropower projects. Environmental impact assessments should be taken seriously and cannot be considered a formality. In Ethiopia and in many developing countries, the hydropower industry is booming. Although dams and IBWTs can be the best solution for water-related problems in specific contexts, national development goals (such as the expansion of the electricity network) should not be at the expense of rural livelihoods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A field experiment was conducted for 2 years during the main cropping seasons of 2017 and 2018 in Fogera Plain to study the productivity response of lowland rice varieties to different sources of nitrogen fertilizer. The experiment was conducted using a factorial arrangement of three sources of N fertilizer (conventional urea, slow-release urea and urea supergranule) and three varieties of rain-fed lowland rice (Hiber, Ediget and X-jigna) laid out in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. The recommended rate of 69 kg N ha–1 was used for all three sources of nitrogen fertilizer. Results showed that highest soil-plant analysis development value, leaf area index (LAI), thousand-grain weight, biomass and grain yields of rice were recorded with the interaction of urea supergranule N fertilizer application and Hiber rice variety, while the lowest values of the parameters were recorded with the interaction of conventional urea application and X-jigna rice variety. Rain-fed lowland rice grain yield of 4.6 ton ha–1 was obtained from the interaction of urea supergranule and Hiber rice variety. Economic evaluation results showed also that the highest net return of 58,947.50 Ethiopian Birr ha–1 was estimated from the combination of urea supergranule and Hiber rice variety. According to the present results, the interactions of urea supergranule N fertilizer with Hiber and Ediget rice varieties were found as the first and the second outsmarted combinations that would be used further for exploiting more grain yield and net benefits of rain-fed lowland rice without yield penalty in Fogera Plain, northwest Ethiopia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We have investigated the relevance of the notion of “peripheralism” in the Beles basin. In this lowland border area of Ethiopia, important investments require an evaluation of their socio-economic and ecological impacts in the light of Ethiopia’s Climate-Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) strategy. We contrasted literature of different periods with field observations. In the middle and lower parts of the basin, the Gumuz people traditionally practised shifting cultivation. Resettlement of highlanders is particularly linked to water and land resources. A large irrigation project was initiated in the 1980s, but vegetables and fruits face post-harvest losses. Large water transfers from Lake Tana since 2010 affect the movement of people, the hydrogeomorphology, and ecology of the river. In several parts of the basin, the settlers’ economy now dominates. Many Gumuz became sedentary but maintained their agricultural system, particularly in the south of the lower basin. Land titling allowed allocation of “vacant” areas to transnational or domestic investors. As a result, the semi-natural vegetation is frequently replaced by open cropland, leading to decreased carbon storage and increased soil erosion. This and water abstraction for irrigation jeopardise hydropower production, in contradiction with the CRGE objectives. Despite the recent developments, the contrasts in economic activity make the core-periphery dichotomy to remain actual in the Beles basin. The resettlements and permanent cropping tend to make the upper basin part of the core. However, the installation of a transit road and commercial farms in the lower basin do not allow to consider that a non-peripheral integration has taken place. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Various soil and water conservation measures (SWC) have been widely implemented to reduce surface runoff in degraded and drought-prone watersheds. But little quantitative study has been done on to what extent such measures can reduce watershed-scale runoff, particularly from typical humid tropical highlands of Ethiopia. The overall goal of this study is to analyze the impact of SWC interventions on the runoff response by integrating field measurement with a hydrological CN model which gives a quantitative analysis future thought. Firstly, a paired-watershed approach was employed to quantify the relative difference in runoff response for the Kasiry (treated) and Akusty (untreated) watersheds. Secondly, a calibrated curve number hydrological modeling was applied to investigate the effect of various SWC management scenarios for the Kasiry watershed alone. The paired-watershed approach showed a distinct runoff response between the two watersheds however the effect of SWC measures was not clearly discerned being masked by other factors. On the other hand, the model predicts that, under the current SWC coverage at Kasiry, the seasonal runoff yield is being reduced by 5.2%. However, runoff yields from Kasiry watershed could be decreased by as much as 34% if soil bunds were installed on cultivated land and trenches were installed on grazing and plantation lands. In contrast, implementation of SWC measures on bush land and natural forest would have little effect on reducing runoff. The results on the magnitude of runoff reduction under optimal combinations of SWC measures and land use will support decision-makers in selection and promotion of valid management practices that are suited to particular biophysical niches in the tropical humid highlands of Ethiopia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sustainable land management is of utmost importance in Ethiopia and relies on Soil and Water Conservation (SWC) measures collectively implemented by smallholders through participatory processes. This paper contributes systematic evidence on how SWC strategies are implemented and how participation is operationalized. Drawing upon inductive, qualitative research, we explore the design, implementation and evaluation of SWC activities, as they relate to Ostrom’s Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD) framework, in order to determine how the activities can be made more appropriate, effective and sustainable. Findings show that on all levels of Ostrom’s framework, there are shortcomings in the SWC institutions, which have to be addressed with more participatory approaches, a change from top-down to bottom-up measures, and economic incentives for farmers to invest in SWC measures instead of e.g. compulsory labor, and the integration of so far neglected groups like youth, women and the landless. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Landscape response to drivers of change is more visible and noticeable in deltas and floodplains than in upstream. Here, we address the changes of Lake Tana basin by investigating the delta development of Gumara River and sediment deposition in the Fogera floodplain over a 58-year period when agricultural land expanded, agriculture intensified, and flooding of the alluvial plain became more frequent. Old maps show that delta formation before the 1950s was minimal, indicating that the sediment contributed by the rivers to the lake was small. However, during the last 58 years, the delta has expanded continuously. When considering the same lake level (2·68 m) from 1984 to 2014, the delta has expanded an average of 5 ha annually, and by considering different lake levels and corresponding delta areas, the delta increased in height an average of 3 cm annually. While the growth of the delta was approximately linear, the sediment concentration in the river doubled in the last 30 years, indicating more efficient sediment trapping in the floodplain as a result of higher lake levels, rising river beds, and farmers intervening with the course of the river near the shore. Unless effective river restoration and catchment-based treatment measures are put in place, the capacity of the rivers will further reduce and aggravate the flooding of the floodplain, causing more sediment deposition in the river channel and on the floodplain. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil erosion is a significant problem in the Ethiopian highlands. The objective of this study was to investigate how farmers perceive the severity of soil erosion in the Upper Blue Nile Basin. The study is based on a detailed survey of 300 households and 1,010 plots owned by these households in three watersheds. Descriptive statistics and a partial proportional odds model were applied to analyze factors that affected farmers' perceived soil erosion severity at the plot-level. Results showed that variables such as plot distance from the residence, plot shape and position on hill slopes affected farmers' perceptions of soil erosion severity, as well as the amount of rainfall during the growing season. Farmer interaction with extension service agents also affected farmers' perception of soil erosion severity. Despite their expected importance, education and number of livestock owned had no effect on the farmers' perception of soil erosion. The results indicate that farmers' perceptions generally match empirical and theoretical findings on soil erosion determinants; thus, farmers should be considered as important partners not only to counter soil erosion, but also to obtain local expertise on soil erosion severity and restoration of degraded land. © 2016 The Authors. Land Degradation and Development published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reviews Ethiopia’s experience and research progress in past soil and water conservation (SWC) efforts and suggests possible solutions for improvement. Although indigenous SWC techniques date back to 400 BC, institutionalized SWC activity in Ethiopia became significant only after the 1970s. At least six national SWC-related programs have been initiated since the 1970s and their focus over time has shifted from food relief to land conservation and then to livelihoods. The overall current soil erosion rates are highly variable and large by international standards, and sheet, rill, and gully erosion are the dominant processes. The influence of human activities on the landscape has traditionally been deleterious, but this trend seems to have recently reversed in some parts of the country following the engagement of the communities in land management. The efficiency of SWC measures show mixed results that are influenced by the type of measures and the agro-ecology under which they were implemented; in general, the relative performance of the interventions is better in the drylands as compared with humid areas. Methodological limitations also occur when addressing the economic aspects related to benefits of ecosystem services and other externalities. Although farmers have shown an increased understanding of the soil erosion problem, SWC efforts face a host of barriers related to limited access to capital, limited benefits, land tenure insecurity, limited technology choices and technical support, and poor community participation. In general SWC research in Ethiopia is fragmented and not comprehensive, mainly because of a lack of participatory research, field observations, and adoptable methods to evaluate impacts. A potentially feasible approach to expand and sustain SWC programs is to attract benefits from global carbon markets. Moreover, a dedicated institution responsible for overseeing the research–extension linkage of SWC interventions of the country should be established. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The combination of runoff-generating areas (saturated soils) and overland flow concentration in features such as drainage ditches makes sloping farmland vulnerable to soil erosion. The establishment of drainage ditches aims at draining the excess of water from the farmland, particularly in areas where soils are saturated in the rainy season. The hydrogeomorphic impacts on the farmland itself and on downstream areas need however also to be studied. Off site, downstream problems comprise higher peak discharges, leading to gully initiation, an increase in sediment load, and flooding problems. On-site problems such as the development of the drainage ditches into (ephemeral) gullies are less documented, although they may be important, as illustrated in the Lake Tana Basin (Ethiopia). The similarities and interactions between ephemeral gully channels and drainage ditches have to be considered to better understand all effects of drainage. Drainage ditches are a potential source of conflict between farmers with different interests and power, as well as between upstream and downstream users. A case study on drainage ditches on sloping farmlands in the Lake Tana Basin showed that nine out of ten catchments had drainage densities by ditches ranging from 53 to 510 m ha−1. Drainage ditches were constructed with an average top width of 27 (±9) cm. A significant correlation was found between stone bund density (physical conservation structures) and ditch drainage density ( R = −0·72), in line with the Ethiopian government's ban on drainage ditches in farmlands where stone bunds have been constructed. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Abstract: Over the last three decades, many soil and water conservation projects have been implemented in various parts of eastern and southern Africa to control land degradation, and improve land productivity, especially under ‘catchment approach’ initiatives of the 1980s. In Ethiopia, many of these soil conservation projects were implemented following the severe drought of 1974. To capture long-term impacts of these initiatives, a study was conducted in Anjenie Watershed of Ethiopia, assessing fanya juu terraces and grass strips constructed in a pilot project in 1984, and which are still functional 25 years later. Data were collected from government records, field observations and questionnaire surveys administered to 60 farmers. Half of the respondent had terraced farms in the watershed former project area (with technology) and the rest were outside the terraced area (without technology). The crops assessed were teff, barley and maize. Cost–benefit analyses were used to determine the economic benefits with and without terraces, including gross and net profit values, returns on labour, water productivity and impacts on poverty. The results indicated that soil and water conservation had improved crop productivity. The average yields on terraced fields for teff, barley and maize were 0.95tha−1 (control 0.49), 1.86tha−1 (control 0.61), and 1.73tha−1 (control 0.77), respectively. The net benefit was significantly higher on terraced fields, recording US$ 20.9 (US$ −112 control) for teff, US$ 185 (US$ −41 control) for barley and US$ −34.5 (US$ −101 control)ha−1 yr−1 for maize, respectively. The returns on family labour were 2.33, 1.01 and 0.739US$man-day−1 for barley, teff and maize grown on terraced plots compared to US$ 0.44, 0.27 and 0.16man-day−1 for without, respectively. Using a discount rate of 10%, the average net present value (NPV) of barley production with terrace was found to be about US$ 1542 over a period of 50 years. In addition, the average financial internal rate of return (FIRR) was 301%. Other long-term impacts of terracing included farmers’ growing of maize on terraced fields as a result of water conservation. Currently, farmers also grow barley on terraced fields for two crop seasons per year unlike the experiences on farms without terraces. Household incomes and food security had improved and soil erosion drastically reduced. Many farmers had adopted terracing doubling the original area under the soil conservation pilot project and consequently improving environmental conservation in the watershed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]