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Objectives: To identify differences and similarities in HbA1c levels and patterns regarding age and gender in eight high-income countries., Subjects: 66 071 children and adolescents below18 years of age with type 1 diabetes for at least 3 months and at least one HbA1c measurement during the study period., Methods: Pediatric Diabetes Quality Registry data from Austria, Denmark, England, Germany, Norway, Sweden, the United States, and Wales were collected between 2013 and 2014. HbA1c, gender, age, and duration were used in the analysis., Results: Distribution of gender and age groups was similar in the eight participating countries. The mean HbA1c varied from 60 to 73 mmol/mol (7.6%-8.8%) between the countries. The increase in HbA1c between the youngest (0-9 years) to the oldest (15-17 years) age group was close to 8 mmol/mol (0.7%) in all countries (P < .001). Females had a 1 mmol/mol (0.1%) higher mean HbA1c than boys (P < .001) in seven out of eight countries., Conclusions: In spite of large differences in the mean HbA1c between countries, a remarkable similarity in the increase of HbA1c from childhood to adolescence was found., (© 2020 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Background: Not much is known about glycaemic-control trajectories in childhood-onset type 2 diabetes (T2D). We investigated characteristics of children and young people (CYP) with T2D and inequalities in glycemic control., Methods: We studied 747 CYP with T2D, <19 years of age in 2009-2016 (from the total population-based National Pediatric Diabetes Audit [>95% diabetes cases in England/Wales]). Linear mixed-effects modeling was used to assess socioeconomic and ethnic differences in longitudinal glycated hemoglobin (HbA 1c ) trajectories during 4 years post-diagnosis (3326 HbA 1c data points, mean 4.5 data points/subject). Self-identified ethnicity was grouped into six categories. Index of Multiple Deprivation (a small geographical area-level deprivation measure) was grouped into SES quintiles for analysis., Results: Fifty-eight percent were non-White, 66% were female, and 41% were in the most disadvantaged SES quintile. Mean age and HbA 1c at diagnosis were 13.4 years and 68 mmol/mol, respectively. Following an initial decrease between diagnosis and end of year 1 (-15.2 mmol/mol 95%CI, -19.2, -11.2), HbA 1c trajectories increased between years 1 and 3 (10 mmol/mol, 7.6, 12.4), followed by slight gradual decrease subsequently (-1.6 mmol/mol, -2, -1.1). Compared to White CYP, Pakistani children had higher HbA 1c at diagnosis (13.2 mmol/mol, 5.6-20.9). During follow-up, mixed-ethnicity and Pakistani CYP had poorer glycemic control. Compared to children in the most disadvantaged quintile, those in the most advantaged had lower HbA 1c at diagnosis (-6.3 mmol, -12.6, -0.1). Differences by SES remained during follow-up. Mutual adjustment for SES and ethnicity did not substantially alter the above estimates., Conclusions: About two-thirds of children with childhood-onset T2D were non-White, female adolescents, just under half of whom live in the most disadvantaged areas of England and Wales. Additionally, there are substantial socioeconomic and ethnic inequalities in diabetes control., (© 2019 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Background: The impact of ethnicity and socio-economic status (SES) on glycaemic control during childhood Type 1 diabetes is poorly understood in England and Wales., Methods: We studied 18 478 children with Type 1 diabetes (< 19 years) attending diabetes clinics and included in the 2012-2013 National Paediatric Diabetes Audit. Self-identified ethnicity was categorized as white, Asian, black, mixed, other and 'not-stated' (did not to divulge ethnicity). A small area measure of SES was estimated from the Index of Multiple Deprivation. Multiple linear regression was used to assess associations between ethnicity, SES and glycaemic control (mean HbA 1c levels) accounting for age, gender and diabetes duration. The impact of insulin pump use on the ethnicity/SES-HbA 1c associations was tested in 13 962 children., Results: All children from minority ethnic groups had higher mean HbA 1c compared with white children, with largest differences observed in black and mixed ethnicities [8 mmol/mol (2.9%), 95% CI 5-11 and 7 mmol/mol (2.8%), 95% CI 5-9, respectively]. Lower SES was associated with higher mean HbA 1c with a dose effect. The lowest SES group had a mean HbA 1c that was 7 mmol/mol (2.8%) (95% CI 6-8) higher compared with the highest SES group, adjusted for ethnicity. Estimates for ethnicity were attenuated, but significant on adjustment for SES. Fewer non-white (white 20.3 vs. black 5.5%) and deprived (least deprived 21.1 vs. most deprived 13.2%) children were on insulin pump therapy. Ethnicity and SES remained significant predictors of HbA 1c after accounting for insulin pump use., Conclusion: The association between ethnicity and glycaemic control persists after adjustment for deprivation and pump use. An alternative approach to intensive insulin therapy might benefit these vulnerable children., (© 2016 Diabetes UK.)

Purpose: Ethnic minority children are at a greater risk for type 2 diabetes (T2D). However, current prevalence of T2D among children and young people is unknown in England and Wales. In addition, little is known on glycemic control in pediatric T2D globally., Methods: Using data from the National Paediatric Diabetes Audit for 2012-2013 with >98% coverage of diabetes cases, we estimated (1) the overall, gender- and ethnic-specific prevalence of T2D in children and young people <16 years and (2) whether ethnicity predicts glycemic control (measured by mean HbA1c) in children and young people <19 years. Ethnicity was self-identified and categorized into white, Asian, black, mixed, other, and "not stated." Multivariable linear regression was used to estimate differences in glycemic control by ethnicity adjusting for socioeconomic status, age, diabetes duration, and gender., Results: A total of 307 children and young people aged <16 years were identified with T2D in the National Paediatric Diabetes Audit for 2012-2013. Overall prevalence of T2D was 2.9/100,000. Females had a higher prevalence of T2D than males (4.3 vs. 1.5/100,000). The highest prevalence was found in Asian (12.2/100,000) followed by mixed ethnicity (4.4/100,000) females. Children of mixed ethnicity had significantly higher mean HbA1c compared with white children (9.7% [83 mmol/mol] vs. 7.8% [62 mmol/mol], p < .001, and adjusted mean difference of 4.2% [22.3 mmol/mol], 95% confidence interval = 3.1%-5.2% [10.9-33.7 mmol/mol]), but there were no significant differences between the other ethnic minority groups., Conclusions: Children of all ethnic minorities particularly females have an increased prevalence of T2D. Those belonging to mixed ethnic backgrounds are at increased risk for poorer glycemic control., (Copyright © 2016 Society for Adolescent Health and Medicine. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)