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The links between substance use and violence, crime, and HIV risk behavior have been well-documented among individuals in developed nations. However, it remains uncertain how, and to what degree, such behaviors are related in the severe socio-environmental context of marginalized communities in developing nations like El Salvador. Using data from a sample of young adult men (n = 177; ages 18–26) residing in marginalized communities in San Salvador, El Salvador (June–November 2011), we conducted Chi-square tests of association and two group mean comparison tests to examine the bivariate associations between substance use disorders (SUDs) and violence, crime, and HIV risk behavior. Results indicate that individuals meeting criteria for SUDs are approximately two to three times more likely than those not meeting criteria to report recent involvement in all violent and criminal outcomes examined in this study. Particularly robust effects were identified in terms of carrying a hidden weapon (χ2 = 26.98,p < 0.001, φ = 0.390) and attacking someone with a weapon or with the idea of seriously hurting/killing them (χ2 = 17.80,p < 0.001, φ = 0.317). Overall, findings suggest that SUDs are strongly associated with violence, crime, and HIV risk behavior within El Salvador’s marginalized communities. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Studies examining the SAVA Syndemic—that is, the synergistic links between substance use, violence, and HIV risk behavior—have rarely been conducted cross-nationally. Using samples of high-risk youth in San Salvador, El Salvador (n = 237) and western Pennsylvania, United States (n = 253), latent class analysis is employed to identify behavioral subgroups of youth. Subgroups of “SAVA Youth” characterized by universally elevated levels of substance use, violence, and HIV risk behavior were identified in both El Salvador (20%) and the United States (42%). Membership in these behaviorally severe subgroups was associated with extremely high levels of severe violence exposure. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

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Low future orientation, low empathy, educational difficulty, school expulsion, delinquent peers, gang membership, and low social support were found to be significant risk factors for violence and delinquency among a sample (N = 174) of high risk youth and youth gang members in San Salvador, El Salvador. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Objective. To examine the direct and mediated relationships between religious coping, spirituality, social developmental factors, and violence among high-risk and gang-involved youth in a high-crime, Latin American country. Methods. Using a community sample of 290 high-risk and gang-involved youth in San Salvador, El Salvador, structural equation modeling was employed to examine the relationships between religious coping, spirituality, social developmental factors (e.g., antisocial bond and antisocial beliefs), and violence. Results. Religious coping (β = -0.14, P < 0.05) and spirituality (β = -0.20, P < 0.01) were both significantly associated with antisocial bond. Antisocial bond, in turn, was directly associated with violence (β = 0.70, P < 0.001) and was associated with antisocial beliefs (β = 0.54, P < 0.001); however, the path from antisocial beliefs to violence was not statistically significant. No direct paths were identified from religiosity and spirituality to violence. The goodness-of-fit statistics (root mean square error of approximation, 0.034; comparative fit index, 0.974; and Tucker-Lewis index, 0.966) suggest that the final model had acceptable fit. Conclusions. This study is among the first to shed light on the relationship between religiosity, spirituality, and youth violence in the Latin American context. Elevated levels of religious coping and spirituality are associated with less antisocial bonding, which, in turn, is associated with lower levels of violent behavior among high-risk and gang-involved Salvadoran youth. Study findings suggest that religious coping and spirituality are indirectly protective for youth violence among this high-risk population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Empathy is considered a key construct in the empirical study of high-risk adolescent and young adult delinquency, crime, and violence. This study examined the psychometric properties and criterion-related validity of a Spanish adaptation of the Basic Empathy Scale (BES), which is an important measure designed to capture both affective and cognitive empathy that has been validated in multiple languages but not in Spanish. The study's sample consisted of 208 high-risk and gang-involved adolescents and young adults in the Greater San Salvador Metropolitan Area. The original BES was reduced from its 20-item design to a more culturally appropriate 7-item design. The results of the confirmatory factor analysis and criterion-related validity analysis indicate that the adapted BES is a valid and reliable multidimensional measure of empathy for high-risk Salvadoran adolescents and young adults. Consistent with previous findings, females reported lower levels of empathy than males and delinquent/violent respondents reported lower levels of empathy than their nonoffender counterparts.

Objective: To examine the direct and mediated relationships between religious coping, spirituality, social developmental factors, and violence among high-risk and gang-involved youth in a high-crime, Latin American country., Methods: Using a community sample of 290 high-risk and gang-involved youth in San Salvador, El Salvador, structural equation modeling was employed to examine the relationships between religious coping, spirituality, social developmental factors (e.g., antisocial bond and antisocial beliefs), and violence., Results: Religious coping (β = - 0.14, P < 0.05) and spirituality (β = - 0.20, P < 0.01) were both significantly associated with antisocial bond. Antisocial bond, in turn, was directly associated with violence (β = 0.70, P < 0.001) and was associated with antisocial beliefs (β = 0.54, P < 0.001); however, the path from antisocial beliefs to violence was not statistically significant. No direct paths were identified from religiosity and spirituality to violence. The goodness-of-fit statistics (root mean square error of approximation, 0.034; comparative fit index, 0.974; and Tucker-Lewis index, 0.966) suggest that the final model had acceptable fit., Conclusions: This study is among the first to shed light on the relationship between religiosity, spirituality, and youth violence in the Latin American context. Elevated levels of religious coping and spirituality are associated with less antisocial bonding, which, in turn, is associated with lower levels of violent behavior among high-risk and gang-involved Salvadoran youth. Study findings suggest that religious coping and spirituality are indirectly protective for youth violence among this high-risk population.