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Cocoa cultivation is one of the sectors that most contributes to Ecuador's GDP. The aim of this study is to determine the Land-Use Conflict (UC) for cocoa in 71 cities on the coast of Ecuador. Photointerpretation has been applied to locate the crop and geospatial modeling has been used to analyze Land Use Capacity (LUC) criteria, agroecological requirements and LUC at 1:5,000. Of the total study surface area, 4.65% is occupied by cocoa crops and of this value 66.03% is in adequate use (AU) and 33.97% in LUC, and the category of UC over lightly used is the most frequent with 17.25% of the total surface in LUC. In the coastal region, the province of Guayas has the lowest LUC in contrast to Los Rios; the predominant LUC for the crop is Class III 34.32%. The findings show that the LUC of cocoa has a low concordance with the national Agroecological Zoning (AZ), since this model considers the crop in natural conditions, the main limiting factor is the vegetative wet period and does not take into account whether the crop is present in the territory. The use of national AZ information to establish crops could limit their production, since it has been demonstrated that there are cultivated areas that are not in conflict and that are exploited by farmers. This study is replicable to other crops and scalable to any area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agroforestry has the potential to support more resilient livelihoods, soil health, and biodiversity, when compared to monocropping. In Ecuador, the Union of Cacao Peasant Organizations (UNOCACE) has been working with producers since 2016 to transition cacao plots to a dynamic agroforestry system that includes timber and fruit species as well as ground cover in addition to cacao. This study evaluates the application of this model and its implications for agricultural production, livelihoods, and soil health through producer surveys and field-based sampling. The program is resulting in significantly more timber and fruit trees on the cacao plots. Despite this, cacao production and income have not decreased in a significant way, once accounting for the number of producing trees on the plots. In addition, while additional labor is utilized on the dynamic agroforestry plots, after utilizing a matching procedure, no significant difference is seen in total crop productivity for each day of labor utilized. Over time, total productivity could increase for the dynamic agroforestry plots as the companion crops and trees mature. As the program is relatively new and has undergone some changes, additional studies are needed to understand the benefits or challenges, especially for soil health, that might be realized further in the lifespan of the program. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents the discussion on modernization process of Ecuador's economy during the early 20th century, which was marked by fluctuations in the price of cacao and significant political events. Topics include liberal revolution led by Eloy Alfaro, the construction of the Durán-Quito railroad, and key legislation on labor and social welfare, as well as significant political crises and conflicts; and including a civil war and a border dispute with Peru.

Cocoa is one of the products with the highest production and export in Ecuador, which has positioned it, in recent years, in fourth place internationally, being a great generator of income for the country. Over the years, the international marketing of this product has generated various changes in the market, affecting the Ecuadorian cocoa sector. The exposed condition led to this research, whose purpose is to compare the exports of the cocoa sector in South America between the years 2012 and 2022. For this purpose, a comparative and descriptive study was carried out about cocoa exports in the South America countries, through documentary analysis and statistical data obtained from TRADE MAP, using the time series methodology on the volume of exports in recent years, with the application of the SPSS statistical software. Thus, market predictions for the next six years were established. It is noted that the cultivation of cocoa benefits more than 300 thousand producers, promoting the growth of the economy in the American meridian. Finally, it could be seen that over the years there were percentage variations in exports on which correlative projections were based, distinguishing Ecuador since it has remained among the main cocoa exporting countries, standing out for its quality, productive capacity and export, with the aroma cocoa phenotype being the most sought after by its buyers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista de Ciencias Médicas de Pinar del Río is the property of Editorial Ciencias Medicas and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Theobroma cacao is very important in the economy of many tropical countries, especially in Ecuador. The development and production of Theobroma cacao have been limited by the attack of diseases, pests, and currently by the impact caused by the water deficit. The loss of water in the crop causes a low production of the plantations. In addition, when genetic diversity is scarce, the possible combinations of genes capable of conferring biological adaptation and, consequently, the capacity to adapt to environmental variations, are reduced. Therefore, a viable option is to identify genes capable of conferring adaptation to water deficit stress. The objective of this research was to characterize genes of Theobroma cacao in response to water deficit. The sequencing and characterization of genes related to water stress were achieved and, finally, the hybridization profile of the genes (ABA, ODC, DEH, and ABS) in response to Actin (ACT) was analyzed. The ABS gene hybridized 100 % with DNA from rootstock EET399 in roots and 80 % with DNA from graft T24 in leaves. The OCD gene hybridized 80 % with DNA from rootstock IMC 67 and 25 % with the T800 graft in leaves. The DEH gene hybridized below the normalizing gene (ACT) in both rootstock EET400 (10 %) in root DNA and graft T12 (5 %) in leaves. Finally, the ABA gene did not hybridize with the DNA of the CCN51 rootstock or with the graft (T801) in both roots and leaves, respectively. This research is key to understand some molecular mechanisms of T. cacao in response to water deficit and can be considered as a viable strategy to reduce crop agronomic losses under the current environmental scenario. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fine-aroma cocoa (Theobroma cacao) is one of Ecuador's most iconic export products and comprises 63% of world production. Nevertheless, few advances have been made to improve fermentation processes that might benefit the development of chocolate's organoleptic characteristics. The study of starter cultures, which seek to improve organoleptic properties or decrease fermentation time, has been investigated in other countries. The aim of this study was to analyze the effect of a native microbial cocktail based on two yeasts (Torulaspora delbrueckii and Hanseniaspora uvarum), a lactic acid bacterium (LAB) (Limosilactobacillus plantarum), and an acetic acid bacterium (AAB) (Acetobacter ghanensis) inoculated at the beginning of the fermentative process while tracking physical and biochemical variables, microbial population dynamics, and bean fermentation time. The starter culture caused changes in sugar and acid content and increased polyphenols, which in turn generated temperature and pH changes in the dough. The dynamics of yeast, AAB, and mesophilic microorganisms remain higher than the controls throughout the process. A decrease in filamentous fungi that affect the flavor and quality of beans was observed due to the production of acetic acid or secondary metabolites from yeasts and LAB, and resulted in 24% greater fermentation than spontaneous fermentation in only 96 h. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ecuador is one of the leading producers of fine aroma cocoa worldwide, involving around 100,000 producer families. On the American continent, the largest producer is Brazil, with 18%, followed by Ecuador and Colombia, and it is estimated that more than 20 million people depend directly on this crop. Moniliophthora roreri, the causal agent of frost pot rot, has been a cause of great concern due to the production losses it has caused, which in 2022 amounted to 80% in different cocoa-producing provinces of Ecuador and worldwide losses of 30% performance they are estimates. This study aimed to determine the biological control potential of microcapsules made with Trichoderma spp spore solution against M. roreri. The In vitro evaluation of the microcapsules did not show significant results in the percentage of inhibition, and this was not the case in the direct evaluation on the farm, where the severity in the 15-day-old fruits showed 0% external and internal affectation with the use of microcapsules in its liquid presentation. Additionally, the evolution of the microcapsules in 28-day-old fruits was observed in severity from 1 to 25% with intercalated applications. Beneficial fungi were applied first, followed by pathogens; though, when the pathogen was applied first, and then the beneficial fungus, the increased severity of external and internal disease was 26-75% and 80-100%, respectively. In conclusion, using microcapsules based on Trichoderma strains at the early ages of the fruits generates protection against M. roreri throughout the vegetative development of the fruit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current cadmium (Cd) regulations in chocolate threaten the cacao supply chain in several Latin American countries. The factors contributing to Cd accumulation in cacao beans have been poorly studied in Central America. The objective of this research was to identify the location of Cd hotspots as well as soil properties and management practices influencing the Cd concentration in cacao beans. A survey was carried out and soil, leaf, and beans were sampled from 150 farms in the three principal cacao-producing regions in Costa Rica. Total soil Cd concentration ranged from <0.1 to 1.05 (average 0.22 mg kg−1) which is typical of uncontaminated soils. Bean Cd concentration ranged from 0.12 to 3.23 (average 0.56 mg kg−1) and 22% of the samples exceeded the selected threshold of 0.80 mg kg−1, located mostly in the Huetar Caribe and Huetar Norte regions. Variability in bean Cd concentration was better explained by total soil Cd and soil organic carbon (SOC) (R2 = 0.62, p < 0.05). In addition, bean Cd concentration was affected by leaf nutrient content and management practices. Leaf Zn and P were positively correlated with bean Cd while K and Mn were negatively correlated (p < 0.05). Farm altitude and orchard age were also negatively correlated with bean Cd. Overall, this study shows that bean Cd contamination does not reach the extent observed in other Latin American countries such as Ecuador, Colombia, or Honduras. Nevertheless, research is needed in hotspot areas to assess the feasibility of potential mitigation strategies, particularly the use of mineral or organic soil amendments, which may allow better for planning in existing plantations or the expansion into new cacao-growing areas in the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: In Tena, individual cocoa production is limited by problems such as: high humidity in the environment, inefficient drying of the fruit, contamination (drying on roads), low value added and internal consumption. Objective: To evaluate the efficiency of a direct solar drying system for cocoa beans in Tena. Materials and Methods: A tent-type natural convention and direct tipe solar dryer was constructed for an experimental drying analysis for 5 kg of cocoa beans and evaluation of temperatures in the system, drying speed, humidity and thermal efficiency. Results and Discussion: During the experimental analysis, the average difference in air humidity outside and inside the dryer was 10 % during the hours of higher solar irradiation, in the first five days 40 % of the humidity was lost in the cocoa beans, while in the following three days 7 % of the humidity was reduced. The average efficiency of the solar dryer was 15.38 %. This indicates an adequate operation of the dryer; the results obtained were within the range of 3 % to 65%. Conclusions: The dryer's efficiency was evaluated by drying 5 kg of fermented cocoa, obtaining at the end of the process 3.72 kg of cocoa with a humidity of 7 %. The main factors affecting the dryer's efficiency are: the relative humidity of the sector, the solar radiation that falls on the solar dryer and the exposed area of cocoa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Ecuador there is a high genetic variability of Theobroma cacao L. However, its cultivation is mainly based on few materials, so it is necessary to develop and study new hybrids for its use in genetic improvement and commercial plantations. The phenotypic variability in the characteristics of the cobs was evaluated in 10 families of intraspecific cacao hybrids established in the experimental farm "Teodomira" in the province of Manabí, Ecuador, considering qualitative and quantitative descriptors. The specific combining ability (HCE) was calculated in the crosses made and the heritability of the quantitative characters. It was determined that there is a high genetic variability in the characteristics of the fruit at the inter- and intra-family level. However, most of the trees of the families analyzed have elliptical (44%) and ovoid (38%) cobs; more than 50% of the individuals presented cobs with obtuse apex, slight or absent basal constriction, medium or slight roughness, and intense yellow color pigmentation on the back; the average size of the cobs was 17.4 cm long and 8.1 cm diameter; fruit weight was between 624.3 and 422 g; seed weight per pod fluctuated between 130 and 96 g; and an average of 40 seeds per cob. The progeny obtained from the cross CCN51 × EET 103 presented the best HCE in terms of yield and seed weight. The evaluated characteristics of the cobs presented high and medium heritability (41-91%). There is a high genetic variability in the characteristics of the fruit of T. cacao, so it is possible to identify and select plants and progenies with desirable characteristics. Based on the calculated heritability, phenotypic selection is a suitable breeding method for this species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the study was to determine the profile of bioactive compounds in cocoa residues (mucilage and bean shells), and to evaluate their antioxidant activity in two cocoa varieties, Nacional X Trinitario type (Fine Aroma) and the variety CCN-51. The extraction of phytonutrients from the residues was carried out selectively. The characterization and quantification of the total polyphenol content (TPC), and the total flavonoid content (TFC) were determined by UV–VIS spectrophotometry. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was used to determine the phenolic profile and methylxanthines. The antioxidant activity was evaluated by the methods of 2-azinobis (3-ethyl-benzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) cation bleaching (ABTS), ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC). The exudate mucilage samples from Nacional X Trinitario-type cocoa presented the highest content of TPC 105.08 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/100 mL, TFC 36.80 mg catechin equivalents (CE)/100 mL, catechin (CAT) 35.44 mg/g, procyanidins (PCB2: 35.10; PCB1: 25.68; PCC1: 16.83 mg/L), epicatechin (EPI) 13.71 mg/L, caffeine (CAF) 0.90% and theobromine (TBR) 2.65%. In the cocoa bean shell, the variety CCN-51 presented a higher content of TPC (42.17 mg GAE/100 g) and TFC (20.57 mg CE/100 g). However, CAT (16.16 mg/g), CAF (0.35%) and TBR (1.28%) were higher in the Nacional X Trinitario cocoa type. The EPI presented no significant differences between the two samples studied (0.83 and 0.84 mg/g). The antioxidant activity values (ABTS, FRAP and ORAC methods) were higher in the samples of CCN-51 than in the Nacional X Trinitario type. The bean shell samples presented antioxidant values of 171.32, 192.22 and 56.87 mg Trolox equivalents (TE)/g, respectively, and the bean shell samples presented antioxidant values of 167.06, 160.06 and 52.53 mg TE/g, respectively. The antioxidant activity (ABTS, FRAP and ORAC) of the residues was correlated with the bioactive compounds of the mucilage and bean shells, showing a strong positive correlation (<0.99) with the procyanidins (B1, B2 and C1), EPI and CAT and a positive/moderate correlation (0.94) with methylxanthines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mush room Moniliophthora roreri, the causative agent of Moniliasis, is the main problem in cocoa cultivation in Ecuador. The objective of this study was to evaluate the sensitivity of 23 strains of M. roreri against fungicides of different modes of action; The strains were isolated from cocoa fruits with symptoms of the disease collected from cocoa plant samples of the Super Tree, National Type and CCN51 ecotypes in the Francisco de Orellana, Loreto and Joya de Los Sachas cantons of the Orellana province. Three systemic fungicides were evaluated: Azoxystrobin, Difenoconazole and Boscalid; and a protectant, copper sulfate pentahydrate 240 g/L-1, at different concentrations (100, 10, 1, 0.1, 0.01 ppm) in PDA culture medium with three replicates for each treatment. The results obtained show that the pathogen is sensitive to systemic fungicides; 82.60% of the evaluated strains are sensitive to Azoxystrobin at a concentration of 10 ppm with a percentage of growth inhibition (PIC) above 50%; On the other hand, 82.60% of the evaluated strains are sensitive to Difenoconazole from the concentration of 1 ppm with a PIC greater than 50%; and, 86.96% of the evaluated strains are sensitive to Boscalid at a concentration of 10 ppm with a PIC above 50%. However, M. roreri It is insensitive to copper sulfate pentahydrate in all concentrations tested. The fungicides Difenoconazole, Boscalid and Azoxystrobin can be used for chemical control in the management of Moniliasis disease in cocoa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Theobroma cacao, the cocoa tree, is a target for pathogens, such as fungi from the genera Phytophthora, Moniliophthora, Colletotrichum, Ceratocystis, among others. Some cacao pathogens are restricted to specific regions of the world, such as the Cacao swollen shoot virus (CSSV) in West African countries, while others are expanding geographically, such as Moniliophthora roreri in the Americas. M. roreri is one of the most threatening cacao pathogens since it directly attacks the cacao pods driving a significant reduction in production, and therefore economic losses. Despite its importance, the knowledge about the microenvironment of this pathogen and the cocoa pods is still poorly characterized. Methods: Herein we performed RNA sequencing of spores in differential stages of culture in a medium supplemented with cacao pod extract and mycelium collected of the susceptible variety ICT 7121 naturally infected by the pathogen to evaluate the diversity and transcriptional activity of microorganisms associated with the in vitro sporulation of M. roreri. Results: Our data revealed a great variety of fungi and bacteria associated with M. roreri, with an exceptional diversity of individuals from the genus Trichoderma sp. Interestingly, the dynamics of microorganisms from different kingdoms varied proportionally, suggesting they are somehow affected by M. roreri culture time. We also identified three sequences similar to viral genomes from the Narnaviridae family, posteriorly confirmed by phylogenetic analysis as members of the genus Narnavirus. Screening of M. roreri public datasets indicated the virus sequences circulating in samples from Ecuador, suggesting a wide spread of these elements. Of note, we did not identify traces of the viral sequences in the M. roreri genome or DNA sequencing, restricting the possibility of these sequences representing endogenized elements. Discussion: To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of viruses infecting the fungus of the genus Moniliophthora and only the third description of viruses that are able to parasite elements from the Marasmiaceae family. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ecuador is the world's fifth largest cocoa producer, generating hundreds of tons of residues from this fruit annually. This research generates value from the residual (cocoa pod husk) by using it as raw material to obtain pectin, which is widely used in the food and pharmaceutical industries. Extraction of three different organic acids with GRAS status (safe for use), the citric, malic and fumaric acids, was studied. In addition, two other factors, temperature (70–90 °C) and extraction time (60–90 min), were explored in a central composite design of experiments. We determined the conditions of the experiments where the best yields were garnered for citric acid, malic acid and fumaric acid, along with a ~86 min extraction time. The temperature did not show a significant influence on the yield. The pectin obtained under optimal conditions was characterised, showing the similarity with commercial pectin. However, the equivalent weight and esterification degree of the pectin obtained with fumaric acid led us to classify it as having a high equivalent weight and a low degree of esterification. In these regards, it differed significantly from the other two acids, perhaps due to the limited solubility of fumaric acid. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ecuador is one of the main cocoa exporters in Latin America and the top producer of high-quality fine cocoa (~ 65%) in the world. However, there is a lack of knowledge regarding the physicochemical properties of cacao grown locally in the Ecuadorian Amazon region, since these properties have seldom been studied. In addition, it is necessary to improve the postharvest process adapted to the environmental conditions of the Amazon region. This study evaluated the effect of a semi-automatic fermentation system on the main physical and chemical characteristics [weight of 100 beans, cotyledon pH, fermentation percentage, total fat content, and total polyphenol content (TPC)] of Theobroma cacao L. (Nacional and Super Árbol). A full factorial design 22 was used to determine the influence of the factors studied: genotype and fermentation method (semi-automatic and Rohan boxes). The influence of the fermentation method had a highly significant (p < 0.05) positive effect, while the variety of cocoa did not significantly influence the fermentation percentage (p > 0.05). The cocoa beans fermented by the semi-automatic method met the quality parameters for fine aroma cocoa according to the Ecuadorian standard. This method achieved a 10% reduction in fermentation time compared to the traditional system (Rohan boxes). The values obtained for the cotyledon pH (5.85) and TPC (52.8 mg GAE/g) stand out as being directly related to the organoleptic characteristics of chocolate and its derivatives. This indicates that the semi-automatic method can be applied to both cocoa genotypes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The production of cocoa Theobroma cacao L. is essential for some developing countries, especially in South America, since it is an essential raw material in international trade operations, and in this context, improving production characteristics becomes relevant. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of the use of phytohormones in the pre-flowering stage of cocoa and their influence on production variables, including flowering and fertilization percentage, fruit length, kernel weight, number of fruits per plant and yield. A completely randomized design with five treatments and four replications was carried out, an analysis of variance and a comparison of means with Tukey's test 8=0.05. The results showed that the treatment with cytokinin's at a dose of 2.0cc/L (T3) obtained a CV of 3.54% and a p-value of 0.0016 in the applied model, reaching the highest yield 1287,5 kg/Ha being statistically equal to treatments T1, T2 and T4, but different from the control T5, on the other hand, the treatment that presented the best percentage of flowering and fertilization was the treatment with cytokinin's at a dose of 2.5cc/L (T1). It is concluded that the use of cytokinin's favors the percentage of flowering and fertilization in the cocoa crop, improving the yield compared to the control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Societal Impact Statement: "Fine flavor" cocoa, known for its superior flavor and aroma, commands a higher price for farmers than "bulk" cocoa produced for market. These fine flavor cocoa varieties make an important contribution to the agricultural sector in Ecuador. However, cocoa diversity is threatened by deforestation. The effective preservation, characterization, and use of cocoa tree diversity are therefore essential to the future development of this market. We carried out participatory collection surveys with local communities in the Ecuadorian Amazon Forest, to evaluate the genetic diversity of native cocoa trees and protect trees as a resource for local communities. Accessing this wealth of diversity will aid farmers to safeguard cocoa against climate change and develop new varieties for market. Summary: The aromatic Nacional variety of Theobroma cacao, emblematic of Ecuador, is highly sought after by the chocolate industry. The modern Nacional is a hybrid population resulting from genetic admixture that has lost the specificity of the ancestral variety. In the context of progressive forest disappearance, the objective of our study was to collect, safeguard, and evaluate native aromatic cocoa trees from Ecuadorian Amazon areas previously identified as areas of origin of the Nacional variety, as well as those that extend toward the northern Amazon.Four collection expeditions were organized in the Ecuadorian Amazon provinces of Zamora‐Chinchipe, Morona‐Santiago, and Pastaza in close collaboration with local communities. A total of 283 native accessions were collected and safeguarded at experimental stations and in local communities. The genetic diversity of the cocoa trees was analyzed by comparison to known genetic groups with a set of 48 simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers.This new collection clearly enriches the currently known diversity and improves knowledge of the global genetic structure of cocoa trees. Our results clarify the geographic origin of the Nacional variety in the vicinity of an archeological site that housed a Maya Chinchipe population that consumed cacao 5,000 years ago. In addition, our analyses revealed clues to the origin of Criollo, another ancient variety with a fine flavor.These new genetic resources will be used in breeding programs for the varietal improvement of new aromatic cocoa varieties and more globally for the selection of new varieties adapted to environmental changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Societal Impact Statement: Recent surveys conducted on Amazonian cocoa trees in their home range are a unique opportunity to assess the aromas, diversity and potential of the Ecuadorian Amazon to create new aromatic cocoa varieties. Our results reveal informations about the diversity and genesis of aromas in Ecuadorian fine cocoa. The great aromatic diversity could enrich cocoa flavour selection programmes and provide Amazonian populations with new income linked to aromatic varieties, which could lead to a 'grand cru' chocolate. Until now, breeding programmes have been mainly focused on improving characteristics for production, but in recent years cocoa quality has been increasingly examined to meet market expectations. Summary: Ecuador is known worldwide for its fine or flavour cocoa from the Nacional variety. Currently, farmers mainly grow the modern Nacional variety of cocoa trees (hybrids between the ancestral Nacional and Trinitario) while the ancestral Nacional variety tends to be neglected. In order to enlarge the genetic resources related to this ancestral variety, several surveys were carried out in its area of origin located in the South Ecuadorian Amazonia.The 202 trees resulting from these surveys were genotyped using GBS (Genotyping By Sequencing) markers and their dried‐fermented beans were characterised for both their aromatic volatile compounds and sensorial quality. A genome wide association study (GWAS) was carried out with the aim to study the genetic and biochemical bases of the aroma traits of this population and to better exploit them in breeding programmes.Some association areas and candidate genes related to spicy and woody aromas were found for the first time in Theobromacacao. Some association areas and candidate genes related to floral and fruity aromas common to other studies were identified.Our results support the hypothesis that aroma formation may be related to a defence reaction to biotic and abiotic stresses generated by the fermentation process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This paper examines the potential of "biomarkers" to provide immutable identification for food products (chocolate), providing traceability and visibility in the supply chain from retail product back to farm. Design/methodology/approach: This research uses qualitative data collection, including fieldwork at cocoa farms and chocolate manufacturers in Ecuador and the Netherlands and semi-structured interviews with industry professionals to identify challenges and create a supply chain map from cocoa plant to retailer, validated by area experts. A library of biomarkers is created using DNA collected from fieldwork and the International Cocoa Quarantine Centre, holders of cocoa varieties from known locations around the world. Matching sample biomarkers with those in the library enables identification of origins of cocoa used in a product, even when it comes from multiple different sources and has been processed. Findings: Supply chain mapping and interviews identify areas of the cocoa supply chain that lack the visibility required for management to guarantee sustainability and quality. A decoupling point, where smaller farms/traders' goods are combined to create larger economic units, obscures product origins and limits visibility. These factors underpin a potential boundary condition to institutional theory in the industry's fatalism to environmental and human abuses in the face of rising institutional pressures. Biomarkers reliably identify product origin, including specific farms and (fermentation) processing locations, providing visibility and facilitating control and trust when purchasing cocoa. Research limitations/implications: The biomarker "meta-barcoding" of cocoa beans used in chocolate manufacturing accurately identifies the farm, production facility or cooperative, where a cocoa product came from. A controlled data set of biomarkers of registered locations is required for audit to link chocolate products to origin. Practical implications: Where biomarkers can be produced from organic products, they offer a method for closing visibility gaps, enabling responsible sourcing. Labels (QR codes, barcodes, etc.) can be swapped and products tampered with, but biological markers reduce reliance on physical tags, diminishing the potential for fraud. Biomarkers identify product composition, pinpointing specific farm(s) of origin for cocoa in chocolate, allowing targeted audits of suppliers and identifying if cocoa of unknown origin is present. Labour and environmental abuses exist in many supply chains and enabling upstream visibility may help firms address these challenges. Social implications: By describing a method for firms in cocoa supply chains to scientifically track their cocoa back to the farm level, the research shows that organizations can conduct social audits for child labour and environmental abuses at specific farms proven to be in their supply chains. This provides a method for delivering supply chain visibility (SCV) for firms serious about tackling such problems. Originality/value: This paper provides one of the very first examples of biomarkers for agricultural SCV. An in-depth study of stakeholders from the cocoa and chocolate industry elucidates problematic areas in cocoa supply chains. Biomarkers provide a unique biological product identifier. Biomarkers can support efforts to address environmental and social sustainability issues such as child labour, modern slavery and deforestation by providing visibility into previously hidden areas of the supply chain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ecuador is one of the largest producers of fine and aromatic cocoa whose flavor has been recognized for centuries in the international market. To increase production and yield, producers rely on agricultural practices such as pruning and the use of soil and foliar fertilization. The effects of these amendments on crops of Theobroma cacao L were analyzed using a Latin square design in triplicate with four treatments including the control with 48 experimental units, divided into 16 units for each replicate. The treatments evaluated were T1 (pruning), T2 (pruning plus foliar fertilization), T3 (pruning plus soil fertilization) and T4 (control). The variables evaluated in this study were: fruit diameter (cm), fruit length (cm), seed per ear, weight of 100 seeds (gr), yield (kg/ha/year), as well as a cost/benefit analysis. Statistical analyses were carried out using ANDEVA and Tukey's test at 5% probability was used for the comparison of means. The variable of greatest interest was yield, in which T2 obtained an average of 2355.9 kg/ha/year. In addition, the cost/benefit analysis showed that for each dollar invested in T2 yields $2.21, being superior to the other treatments. In conclusion, small and large farmers should adopt these agricultural practices to improve their profitability and quality of life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Frosty pod rot disease of cacao (FPR), caused by the fungus Moniliophthora roreri, has severely impacted the production of cocoa in Latin America since its discovery. Prior to the 1950s, FPR was known only from Colombia and Ecuador. However, beginning in the 1970s, its geographical range has dramatically expanded throughout most of the cacao‐producing regions of the Americas. The origin of the pathogen remains unknown. In this study, we evaluated the genetic diversity of M. roreri from areas spanning, as much as possible, its current geographical range using simple‐sequence repeat markers and a publicly available single‐nucleotide polymorphism data set. Two hotspots of genetic diversity were found: coastal Ecuador and the inter‐Andean Magdalena Valley of Colombia, neither of which correspond to the Amazonian origin of the host. However, both areas were early centres of intense cultivation of cacao. Our results indicate that M. roreri was introduced into both areas from its centre of origin, where intensive cacao cultivation probably led to the increase of inoculum and further dissemination of the disease. Current invasions can be traced to two genotypes responsible for all known instances of the pathogen in Central America, the Caribbean, Peru and Bolivia. We also report for the first time M. roreri in Maynas (Peruvian Amazon), which is probably the result of a recent introduction from Colombia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Cocoa is a very important crop in Ecuador, on account of the large quantities that are exported. Among the varieties grown is CCN 51, which has the highest yielding properties. Since the level of processing in terms of drying done by farmers in the area is very artisanal, it becomes necessary to seek new options for this process. Objective: To analyze the parameters for drying CCN 51 cocoa on an integral farm for its possible industrialization. Materials and Methods: The methodology applied was experimental, drying at temperatures of 45 and 60 °C in equipment with and without air flow, calculating the different drying kinetics in the 4 proposed treatments. Results and Discussion: The best result among the 4 treatments tested was the one used in an air flow equipment at 60°C, according to the Statgraphics Centurion XVIII statistical software data, where the best linear regression adjustment of R² was 97.95% and the correlation factor 0.98, while the linear regression model that best adjusted to the drying kinetics was the square root-Y logarithmic-X in the same treatment. Conclusions: The research concluded that the drying process carried out on the CCN 51 cocoa samples from the study area at 60°C had the best results, which is favorable for possible industrialization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Copyright of Revista CIENCIA UNEMI is the property of Universidad Estatal de Milagro (UNEMI) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Ecuador is one of the leading producers of fine aroma cocoa worldwide. In 2019, Ecuador became the leading exporter of cocoa beans in the Americas and ranked fourth worldwide. The objective of this research was to use enzymes and yeasts as a strategy to decrease cadmium content during the fermentation of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.). A completely randomized design with a bifactorial arrangement was used, where factor A corresponds to fermentation time (48, 96, and 120 hours); and factor B measured the type of starter culture (fermentation; fermentation + mother yeast; fermentation + mother yeast + PPO). A total of nine treatments were evaluated and treatments T1, T2, and T3 were the controls. Tukey's test was used with a p<0.05 to find differences between treatment means. Treatment T9 presented the highest fermentation percentage, with 89.33% in the cut-off test. T5 reached 5.48% moisture, and T7 presented 3.54% ash and 7.42 g.kg-1 of glucose. At the same time, T2 registered 14.99% protein. Of the AxB interaction, T3 presented the lowest cadmium content 0.20 mg.kg-1, in the cocoa beans. In the sensory evaluation, there were no differences between treatments. In conclusion, the increase in fermentation time and the addition of yeast and enzymes decreased cadmium content in dry cocoa beans. Likewise, for the main effect of fermentation time, the lowest cadmium content was achieved when cocoa beans were fermented for 120 hours. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Its objective is to produce a bitter- type chocolate coating from the combination of cocoa of the CCN51 and Super Tree variety. Methodology: the product was elaborated through an experimental, quantitative, and qualitative method. Results: 18 experimental units were generated in the design, where 2 formulations with 2 replications were obtained, which allowed us to determine the best treatment through sensory analysis with a structured hedonic scale of acceptability (assessment from 1 to 5). The sensory evaluation was carried out with 30 untrained panelists, where they determined that T1 with 70% cocoa liquor is the most accepted, while for the trained judges there was no significant difference. The samples were subjected to bromatological analysis, obtaining as a result a moisture content of 1.59%, fat 37.86%, protein 9.26%, ash 2.04%, dry extract of defatted cocoa 99.38%, dry extract of total cocoa 98.41%, microbiological less than 100 cfu. ml-1 in total mesophiles, yeasts, and total coliforms. Limitations: have pilot equipment for processing. Conclusions: The parameters of the best treatment T1 are framed in the NTE INEN 621: 2010 in force in Ecuador for the manufacture of chocolates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lactic acid (LA) is an organic compound with numerous applications in the chemical, pharmaceutical and food industries. In addition, the study of its production has garnered renewed interest due to its applicability in the generation of biopolymers, seeking to lower operating costs and cultivation conditions. Ecuador has a growing demand for LA, but it lacks local production, despite having a microbial diversity that can be used for this purpose. Among the microorganisms that stand out for their production potential is Bacillus subtilis. In the present project, 7 strains of Bacillus subtilis isolated from cocoa crops, a cultivar of great local importance, were studied. These were identified by sequencing the 16s ribosomal and API50 galleries. The strains which were tested for LA production from glucose. The 3 best strains for LA production were identified and their yields were evaluated under aerobic, anaerobic and microaerobic conditions. The highest production of LA was evidenced under aerobic conditions with efficiencies of approximately 0.25 grams of LA per gram of glucose in the three best strains, equivalent to 5 g / L LA. Through the present investigation, it was possible to establish methodologies and achieve reasonable LA production with Bacillus subtilis strains, in addition, 3 promising strains for the production of LA in the country were identified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of early civilizations was greatly associated with populations' ability to exploit natural resources. The development of methods for food preservation was one of the pillars for the economy of early societies. In Ecuador, food fermentation significantly contributed to social advances and fermented foods were considered exclusive to the elite or for religious ceremonies. With the advancement of the scientific research on bioprocesses, together with the implementation of novel sequencing tools for the accurate identification of microorganisms, potential health benefits and the formation of flavor and aroma compounds in fermented foods are progressively being described. This review focuses on describing traditional fermented foods from Ecuador, including cacao and coffee as well as less popular fermented foods. It is important to provide new knowledge associated with nutritional and health benefits of the traditional fermented foods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Motivated by transformations in global food systems and increasing demand for multidimensional credence attributes, the authors analyze cacao value chains in Ecuador – the main producer of fine and flavor cacao worldwide. The authors identify opportunities and discuss how private and public sector initiatives can help meet emerging challenges. Design/methodology/approach: Primary information was collected through interviews of actors in the Ecuadorian industry during spring/summer 2020, including cacao producer associations, exporter associations, chocolate processing firms, public institutions and local universities. Two focus groups were also conducted with producers from associations in the Ecuadorian Amazon. Findings: Findings suggest new opportunities for cacao producers and chocolate processors have emerged from the global market transformation. To exploit these, firms need to personalize and differentiate their products, for example, by using quality certifications such as organic and fair trade. Market developments, such as European cadmium regulations and the necessity of worldwide traceability systems, are driving exporters to enhance Ecuador's cacao value chains. The sector still requires coordination to reap the benefits associated with demands for credence attributes. Originality/value: Findings are supported by two case studies. The first focuses on how associativity can help those producing high-quality beans to differentiate themselves in modern agri-food markets. The second describes the success of a local chocolate firm and its links with local farmers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carboxylates generation from banana (peel and pulp), coffee, and cacao fermentation agro-waste, upon uncontrolled and controlled pHs of 6.6 (heat-driven methanogens inactivation) and 5.2 (pH inactivation), was studied. Regarding volatile fatty acids (VFAs), acetic was the highest for cocoa (96.2 g kg -1 TVS ) at pH 4.5. However, butyric was relevant for banana pulp (90.7 g kg -1 TVS ), at controlled pH 6.6. The highest medium chain fatty acid (MCFAs) level was hexanoic (cocoa, 3.5 g kg -1 TVS ), while octanoic reached a maximum of 2.8 g kg -1 TVS for coffee at pH 6.6. At pH 5.2 MCFAs yield was relatively low. Uncontrolled pH conditions, using banana resulted in superior VFAs production compared to controlled conditions. Thus, pH became a determining variable when deciding the time and kind of carboxylic acid to be recovered. The bacterial community at the end of the chain elongation process was dominated by phyla Firmicutes, and Clostridium as the most common genera., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Combining certain recreational activities with agricultural production contributes favorably to tourism; for this reason, this research analyzes the competitiveness of the tourist destination and the development of the Ecuadorian cocoa routes. A quantitative approach with a non-experimental, descriptive and cross-sectional design is used to collect information on 9 of the 16 identified tourist routes in Ecuador, where cocoa varieties are grown, especially fine aroma cocoa with denomination of origin. The objective is to analyze the competitiveness of the tourist destination and the development of the Ecuadorian cocoa routes in relation to the factors that contribute to the development of a tourist activity: product, performance, future and support for community tourism and, in this way, to understand the opportunity for tourism and cocoa production growth to be sustainable. There is an imbalance between the evaluated variables that do not favor the destination to reach a level of competitiveness compared to others that offer the same or similar product; in addition, there is a lack of strategies, actions or a monitoring and control process, which does not contribute to tourism development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the main problems in the production of cacao in Ecuador is the disease caused by the fungus Moniliophthora roreri (frosty pod rot) which affects the pods. Here, we evaluate the genetic diversity of this fungus in Ecuador, and its sensitivity to the fungicide azoxystrobin. We evaluated 76 monosporic cultures from the Amazon and the Pacific coast regions. In vitro sensitivity assays tested several doses of the fungicide azoxystrobin to determine the percent of growth inhibition and the IC50. Concentrations of 1 to 0.1 µg mL−1 inhibited the growth of at least 91% of the isolates. Three isolates were the less sensitive (IC50 = 0.0220–0.0364 µg mL−1), two from Guayas (Pacific coast) and one from Sucumbíos (Amazon) provinces. However, M. roreri is highly sensitive, and it could be used in integrated management of the disease. Genetic analyses were carried out by amplifying microsatellite markers (SSR). All the genetic diversity statistics show a higher diversity in the Amazon compared to samples of the coast region; however, the molecular variance was low (FST = 0.11). Discriminant analysis clearly distinguishes three clusters concurrent with the provinces (Sucumbíos, Orellana and El Oro) and a group with the rest of the provinces. Minimum spanning networks shows, unexpectedly, that M. roreri from the coast were derived from at least three independent introductions from the Amazon. Findings are discussed in light of previous Pan-American genetic studies and available historical reports. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The research was carried out in El Carmen canton, Manabí province, Ecuador. The objective was to evaluate the effect of levels of poultry manure on the chemical properties of an Inceptisol soil dedicated to the production of fine aroma cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) with the use of corn (Zea mays L.) as indicator plant. Soil samples were taken in 2017 with a completely randomized design and levels 0, 2, 4, 4, 6 and 8 t ha-1 to be applied per 1.5 kg pots of soil. Comparisons of means were performed according to Tukey's test for p≤0.05 and Pearson’s correlation matrix with the statistical processors SPSS, Statistics (Version 19.0 on Windows) and STAHTGRAPHICS Plus, version 5.0. The best level of poultry manure was 6 t ha-1 since the highest pH value (water) and the lowest acidity of change, the highest Ca/Mg ratio and the highest percentage of organic matter were achieved in the soil, and the best foliar nutrient contents (%), Ca/Mg ratio and total dry matter were achieved in the plant. The results showed positive correlations between the percentage of organic matter, foliar Ca/Mg ratio and root dry matter, and between assimilable phosphorus contents in the soil and total dry matter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Efforts to improve cacao value chains often assume that production of fine and flavor varieties will raise smallholder incomes. Undertaking postharvest practices of fermentation and drying is another exercise assumed to increase value‐added capture by smallholder producers. This study employs household data from 340 cacao farms in 15 villages in coastal Ecuador during 2018 to empirically assess these assumptions. Contrary to the common belief of the international development community, we find that the production of fine and flavor cacao varieties has no association with the price received by small‐scale producers. This is mainly due to (i) low productivity and (ii) nonexistent price premiums. Findings also suggest that the use of postharvest practices of fermentation and drying may lead to substantial price responses irrespective of the type of variety grown. The results presented here have implications for program interventions aimed at increasing farmer revenue. Programs promoting the use of fine and flavor varieties alone might be misguided and can be improved by training in modern processing techniques, regardless of the variety produced. [EconLit Citations: O12, Q01, Q12, Q13]. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many decades of improvement in cacao have aided to obtain cultivars with characteristics of tolerance to diseases, adaptability to different edaphoclimatic conditions, and higher yields. In Ecuador, as a result of several breeding programs, the cloneCCN51 was obtained, which gradually expanded through the cacao-production regions of Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil and Peru. Recognized for its high yield and adaptability to different regions and environments, it has become one of the most popular clones for breeding programs and cultivation around the world. This review aims to summarize the current evidence on the origin, genetics, morphological, volatile compounds, and organoleptic characteristics of this clone. Physiological evidence, production dynamics, and floral biology are also included to explain the high yield of CCN 51. Thus, characteristics such as osmotic adjustment, long pollen longevity, and fruit formation are further discussed and associated with high production at the end of the dry period. Finally, the impact of this popular clone on the current and future cacao industry will be discussed highlighting the major challenges for flavor enhancement and its relevance as a platform for the identification of novel genetic markers for cultivar improvement in breeding programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Theobroma cacao is the only source that allows the production of chocolate. It is of major economic importance for producing countries such as Ecuador, which is the third-largest cocoa producer in the world. Cocoa is classified into two groups: bulk cocoa and aromatic fine flavour cocoa. In contrast to bulk cocoa, fine flavour cocoa is characterised by fruity and floral notes. One of the characteristics of Nacional cocoa, the emblematic cocoa of Ecuador, is its aromatic ARRIBA flavour. This aroma is mainly composed of floral notes whose genetic and biochemical origin is not well-known. This research objective is to study the genetic and biochemical determinism of the floral aroma of modern Nacional cocoa variety from Ecuador. Genome-Wide Association Study (GWAS) was conducted on a population of 152 genotypes of cocoa trees belonging to the population variety of modern Nacional. Genome-Wide Association Study was conducted by combining SSR and SNP genotyping, assaying biochemical compounds (in roasted and unroasted beans), and sensory evaluations from various tastings. This analysis highlighted different areas of association for all types of traits. In a second step, a search for candidate genes in these association zones was undertaken, which made it possible to find genes potentially involved in the biosynthesis pathway of the biochemical compound identified in associations. Our results show that two biosynthesis pathways seem to be mainly related to the floral note of Nacional cocoa: the monoterpene biosynthesis pathway and the L-phenylalanine degradation pathway. As already suggested, the genetic background would therefore appear as largely explaining the floral note of cocoa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of BIOAGRO is the property of Revista BIOAGRO and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Revista CIENCIA UNEMI is the property of Universidad Estatal de Milagro (UNEMI) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Frosty pod rot (FPR) of cacao is caused by Moniliophthora roreri (MR). Effective management must include chemical or biological control, in addition to agronomic tactics. Flutolanil has been effective in controlling FPR. The objective of this research was to determine the response to flutolanil of MR isolates from the Amazon and Coast regions of Ecuador. Percentage of mycelial growth inhibition (PGI), and medium inhibitory concentration (IC50) against three concentrations of the fungicide were determined. One µg mL-1 of flutolanil in the culture medium inhibited completely the growth of the 76 MR isolates. At 0.1 µg mL-1, 74/76 were inhibited between 70- 97 % compared to the control. Conversely, at the lower concentrations (0.01-0.001 µg mL-1) the results of inhibition were only of 22 % and 47 %, respectively. Four groups were identified: one included the most sensitive (66/76) to different degrees, and three groups representing 10 isolates that were stimulated at low concentrations of flutolanil. IC50 values were low, indicating very high sensitivity in the MR population. IC50max were 0.1342 and 0.1457 in two isolates from the Coast and the Amazon regions, respectively. Isolates from the Coast were significantly less sensitive to flutolanil than those from the Amazon (χIC50 = 0.046 ± 0.03 and χIC50 = 0.030 ± 0.02, respectively), however, the differences were minimal. There were no significant differences when comparing the provinces. The most stimulated isolates were found in the provinces of Orellana and Los Ríos. It is concluded that flutolanil seems effective against the causal agent of FPR in Ecuador, both Coast and Amazon regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista CIENCIA UNEMI is the property of Universidad Estatal de Milagro (UNEMI) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The aim of this research was to complete the characteristics of cocoa beans and cocoa butter extracted from two different Theobroma cacao species: Criollo originated from Peru and Forastero originated from Ecuador, both in the version of raw (unroasted) and roasted beans. Before extraction, the cocoa beans were characterized by proximate analysis. The determination of fatty acids composition was carried out by gas chromatography (GC). The positional distribution of fatty acids in the sn-2 positions of triacylglycerols (TAGs) was also determined. The thermogravimetric analyses (TGA/DTG) were performed under the nitrogen and oxygen atmosphere of roasted and unroasted cocoa beans. The kinetic information was helpful to assess the oxidative stability of cocoa butter. The cocoa butter extracted from unroasted Forastero from Ecuador had the highest values of oxidation activation energy Ea. The melting characteristics of cocoa butter extracted from roasted Criollo species were very similar to their unroasted versions. The same trend was not observed for Forastero species. TGA and DTG were revealed to be useful tools for the analysis of whole cocoa beans and the fats extracted from these cocoa beans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista CIENCIA UNEMI is the property of Universidad Estatal de Milagro (UNEMI) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Today people spend their free time getting to know, travel, visit new places and experiment with new customs. To carry out these actions, there are currently numerous destinations that can be considered and each one of them offers endless opportunities to tourists. For this reason, these destinations must exploit their potential and the elements that are attractive to the potential visitor. For this reason, Ecuador has given greater importance to strengthening its various charms through the implementation of projects and programs that directly influence the growth of both national and international tourism. A clear example of this intention is the launch of a group of cacao routes with the aim of taking advantage of the nation's chocolate tradition. The present investigation has as fundamental objectives; on the one hand. identify and describe the different cacao routes currently existing in the country, and, on the other hand, the analysis of the incidents in the socioeconomic development of these routes in the different locations along the route. From the documentary review and the analysis of the literature, it was determined that there are two large áreas of fundamental routes with their different routes, which have promoted rural and gastronomic tourism and the creation of jobs in the different territories. In this sense, it is considered that the implementation of the routes is a beneficial initiative for the different localities and for Ecuador in general. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Histories of agrarian capitalism have often been constrained by the implications of Robert Brenner's work on the subject. This essay, employing archival and secondary research on Ecuador's long 19th century experiences with cacao capitalism, argues that production processes and localized forms of accumulation, rather than class structure and legal relations, should be included in our definition of the concept. By focusing on how fixed capital in cacao trees and the production of the yearly cacao commodity responded to global demand and local material conditions, I propose amplifying the concept of agrarian capitalism, as well as a rethinking of coastal Ecuador's history of capitalist development. I highlight how both absolute and relative forms of surplus value generation coexisted in coastal Ecuador's cacao haciendas, while demonstrating how financial instruments used for extending the cacao frontier undermined the prospects for long‐term growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cacao is a commodity crop from the tropics cultivated by about 6 million smallholder farmers. The tree, Theobroma cacao, originated in the Upper Amazon where it was domesticated ca. 5450 to 5300 B.P. From this center of origin, cacao was dispersed and cultivated in Mesoamerica as early as 3800 to 3000 B.P. After the European conquest of the Americas (the 1500s), cacao cultivation intensified in several loci, primarily Mesoamerica, Trinidad, Venezuela, and Ecuador. It was during the colonial period that cacao diseases began emerging as threats to production. One early example is the collapse of the cacao industry in Trinidad in the 1720s, attributed to an unknown disease referred to as the "blast". Trinidad would resurface as a production center due to the discovery of the Trinitario genetic group, which is still widely used in breeding programs around the world. However, a resurgence of diseases like frosty pod rot during the republican period (the late 1800s and early 1900s) had profound impacts on other centers of Latin American production, especially in Venezuela and Ecuador, shifting the focus of cacao production southward, to Bahia, Brazil. Production in Bahia was, in turn, dramatically curtailed by the introduction of witches' broom disease in the late 1980s. Today, most of the world's cacao production occurs in West Africa and parts of Asia, where the primary Latin American diseases have not yet spread. In this review, we discuss the history of cacao cultivation in the Americas and how that history has been shaped by the emergence of diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of BIOAGRO is the property of Revista BIOAGRO and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Revista Ciencia y Tecnología Agropecuaria is the property of Agrosavia and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Cocoa is a primary source of economic income in the agricultural and agroindustrial sectors of Ecuador. However, cocoa crops are vulnerable to meteorological conditions that affect reproduction processes, including pollen production, which has encouraged the study of factors related to low crop yields and practical implications in breeding programs. The objective of this study was to assess the pollen production per flower in 11 genotypes of Theobroma cacao national type and CCN-51 clone. The number of pollen grains per flower was estimated by collecting 10 flower buds from each genotype for 12 consecutive months and directly counting pollen grains using an optical microscope and a Neubauer chamber. An average of 32,611 pollen grains per flower was estimated, with the largest amount of pollen (44,000) produced by the CCN-51 genotype. There was a moderate positive correlation between the environmental variables and pollen production (temperature, r = 0.33; p = 0.028; precipitation, r = 0.43; p = 0.0025). Since pollen production is an important indicator used for the selection of promising genotypes, the genotypes identified with the highest pollen production should be used in breeding programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of BIOAGRO is the property of Revista BIOAGRO and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)