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The degree of preservation and the extractability of organic molecules in both archaeological and paleontological skeletal material has been the objective of many studies during the last decades and have shown extremely promising and interesting results (Schweitzer et al., 1997, 2007; Poulakakis et al., 2002; Schmidt-Schultz & Schultz, 2004; Dotsika et al., 2011). Studies on such molecules via various protocols of extraction as well as isotopic and spectroscopic analyses (Stathopoulou et al., 2008; Dotsika et al., 2011; Kontopoulos et al., 2019) have led to important information concerning evolutionary, environmental and diagenetic issues. Collagen is one of the most abundant proteins in skeletal material and its preservation in fossil material may indicate the preservation of other extremely important biomolecules such as DNA (Turner-Walker et al., 2008). This paper aims to present results concerning the evaluation of organic preservation as well as the extraction and quantification of collagen in samples from the Quaternary locations of Tilos and Dispilio (Greece) and Aghia Napa (Cyprus). Infrared Spectroscopy (ATR and NIR) was applied to all samples, prior to extraction in means of collagen prescreening and following extraction (where successful), to study the exact composition of the extracts and examine the correlation between collagen preservation and the samples' diagenetic profile (Stathopoulou et al., 2008; Kuczumow et al., 2010; Cleland et al., 2015; Stathopoulou et al., 2019). The extraction of collagen was attempted via modifications of the Longin (1971) method and specifically those of Maspero et al. (2011), Semal and Orban (1995) and Ambrose (1990). According to our results, only the Ambrose method led to successful collagen extraction and specifically only in the Dispilio samples. The collagen yield values for this material varied significantly (0,3–6,1% w/w) and seemed to strongly correlate to the different contexts found within the archaeological site. The IR analysis of the extracted Dispilio collagen indicated the presence of impurities such as carbonates and subsequently raised questions relating to the efficacy of the extraction method. Issues concerning geochemical and diagenetic parameters within the strata of the waterlogged site of Dispilio that could be connected to the different collagen yield as well as the methodological problems that emerged during the attempted extraction in all samples are discussed as well as the applicability of these methods on samples with reduced organic content. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In our paper (Nicolaou et al., 2020) we used age-graded mandibles to draw attritional mortality profiles which challenge the hypothesis that the hippo bone accumulation of Aetokremnos resulted from human hunting. Simmons et al. (2022) raised concerns about the methodology we used compared to the methodology used by Wopschall (2014) who drew prime-dominated mortality profiles on the very same material. Here, we compare the two methodologies, and we explain why our use of age-graded mandibles is more reliable than the use of isolated m1 and m2 molars used by Wopschall. We also address some of the commenter's objections to the arguments raised by chronology, stratigraphy and taphonomy studies which were cited in our article. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Cypriot pygmy hippopotamus is an extinct Mediterranean species that inhabited the island of Cyprus during the Late Pleistocene. This iconic species last appears at the archaeological site of Akrotiri Aetokremnos, dated to ~12 500 cal. BP. Taxonomically, the Cypriot pygmy hippopotamus has been assigned to Hippopotamus minor , which, based on morphology, is more closely related to the common hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius ; today present only in Sub-Saharan Africa) than to the West African pygmy hippopotamus (Choeropsis liberiensis). Despite adverse conditions for preservation that greatly reduce the likelihood of DNA preservation in subfossil samples from hot environments, we recovered and analysed ancient DNA from petrous bones excavated from Akrotiri Aetokremnos. By whole mitogenome hybridization capture and exhaustive high-throughput sequencing, we were able to investigate the molecular phylogeny and taxonomic status of the Cypriot pygmy hippopotamus. The results of our low-coverage ancient mitogenomic analyses support the close phylogenetic affinity of H. minor to H. amphibius , with their divergence estimated at ~1.36 or 1.58 Mya, depending on the molecular dating method. To our knowledge, this study constitutes the first step towards reconstruction of the molecular phylogeny of Mediterranean Hippopotaminae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of life tables in age-graded mandibles of the endemic pygmy hippopotamus Hippopotamus minor from Aetokremnos Cyprus suggests that death occurred by natural causes such as accidents, genetic abnormalities and endemic diseases rather than catastrophic causes. Comparison of H. minor and modern Hippopotamus amphibius life tables suggests the birth of one offspring per female per year and the occurrence of mating and birth seasons. Hunting by prehistoric humans whose tools were found in proximity with the hippopotamus bones is not justified by the life tables that have been produced. The use of the wet rockshelter of Aetokremnos as a living area during the day, in the same way that extant H. amphibius use lake water, is instead proposed as a probable explanation for the extensive accumulation of bones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marine Piacenzian deposits are extremely rare in the eastern Mediterranean region, resulting in a stratigraphic gap in our knowledge of the late Pliocene evolution of the marine ecosystem and its fauna. Fish assemblages moreover are scant throughout the Pliocene. We present here the teleost fish fauna of the Piacenzian Polis basin (SW Cyprus) based on otolith assemblages, and we use them to reconstruct the paleoenvironment. Twenty-six teleost fish taxa are identified, placed under sixteen genera and five families. Planktonic foraminifera biostratigraphy places the studied outcrop within the subzones MPL4a and MPL5a (early–middle Piacenzian). Four species and two genera of fish are reported for the first time in the Piacenzian of the Mediterranean. The studied otolith assemblage from Androlykou section consists of very shallow-water fish mixed with mesopelagic taxa indicating topographical steepness with easy access to the open ocean. In addition, the fish assemblages mainly include representatives of subtropical taxa suggesting a climate warmer than today. These data provide new information on the composition of the ichthyofauna of the eastern Mediterranean during the Piacenzian, paving the way for new studies in the Cyprus area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cyprus, the largest Eastern Mediterranean island, hosted a highly impoverished endemic mammalian fauna during the Pleistocene to early Holocene times. This was a result of its extreme biogeographic isolation since its formation, which prevented the immigration of most terrestrial mammals, except for those with apparent sea channel crossing abilities. The main faunal elements are the extremely dwarfed hippo Phanourios minor , commonly found in many sites across the island, and the dwarf elephant Palaeoloxodon cypriotes . The latter is a very small-sized elephant species, comparable in size with the Siculo-Maltese Palaeoloxodon falconeri . Larger dental specimens found sporadically during the last century, raised the possibility that a second endemic elephant, larger than P. cypriotes , may have also existed in Cyprus. Here we describe a skull recently excavated in the coastal area of Xylophágou, SE Cyprus, which provides evidence that, indeed, two elephant species have existed on the island. The larger species, Palaeoloxodon xylophagou n. sp., is still strongly dwarfed and characterised by elongated, low and wide skull, diverging tusk alveoli and comparatively large molars. Dimensionally the dentition is distinctly larger than P. cypriotes and close to Palaeoloxodon tiliensis , though the skull size is intermediate between P. tiliensis and P. falconeri . Both Cypriot elephant species exhibit morphological affinities with Palaeoloxodon antiquus , which is their probable ancestor. Stratigraphic data suggest that P. xylophagou is older (late Middle Pleistocene), while P. cypriotes is more recent (latest Pleistocene to early Holocene) and may have descended from the former or – less probably – evolved as a result of a separate, more recent colonisation event. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]