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Some states and localities restrict siting of new oil and gas (O&G) wells relative to public areas. Colorado includes a 500-foot exception zone for building units, but it is unclear if that sufficiently protects public health from air emissions from O&G operations. To support reviews of setback requirements, this research examines potential health risks from volatile organic compounds (VOCs) released during O&G operations. We used stochastic dispersion modeling with published emissions for 47 VOCs (collected on-site during tracer experiments) to estimate outdoor air concentrations within 2,000 feet of hypothetical individual O&G facilities in Colorado. We estimated distributions of incremental acute, subchronic, and chronic inhalation non-cancer hazard quotients (HQs) and hazard indices (HIs), and inhalation lifetime cancer risks for benzene, by coupling modeled concentrations with microenvironmental penetration factors, human-activity diaries, and health-criteria levels. Estimated exposures to most VOCs were below health criteria at 500–2,000 feet. HQs were < 1 for 43 VOCs at 500 feet from facilities, with lowest values for chronic exposures during O&G production. Hazard estimates were highest for acute exposures during O&G development, with maximum acute HQs and HIs > 1 at most distances from facilities, particularly for exposures to benzene, 2- and 3-ethyltoluene, and toluene, and for hematological, neurotoxicity, and respiratory effects. Maximum acute HQs and HIs were > 10 for highest-exposed individuals 500 feet from eight of nine modeled facilities during O&G development (and 2,000 feet from one facility during O&G flowback); hematologic toxicity associated with benzene exposure was the critical toxic effect. Estimated cancer risks from benzene exposure were < 1.0 × 10−5 at 500 feet and beyond. Implications: Our stochastic use of emissions data from O&G facilities, along with activity-pattern exposure modeling, provides new information on potential public-health impacts due to emissions from O&G operations. The results will help in evaluating the adequacy of O&G setback distances. For an assessment of human-health risks from exposures to air emissions near individual O&G sites, we have utilized a unique dataset of tracer-derived emissions of VOCs detected at such sites in two regions of intense oil-and-gas development in Colorado. We have coupled these emission stochastically with local meteorological data and population and time-activity data to estimate the potential for acute, subchronic, and chronic exposures above health-criteria levels due to air emissions near individual sites. These results, along with other pertinent health and exposure data, can be used to inform setback distances to protect public health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]