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Learning strategies have been considered an important field of study since 1970s. Since that time the objective of reviewing studies in this field has been to determine the effectiveness of learning strategies in developing foreign language skills. For this reason, a comprehensive review of literature from Asia, Europe, and America on foreign language learning and the use of strategies that facilitate this process has been done. We have focused on Oxford's (1990) six types of learning strategies: metacognitive, affective, social, cognitive, memory, and compensation. The results show that learning strategies influence both the foreign language learning processes and the development of the skills of reading, listening, writing, and speaking. However, it is the metacognitive, cognitive, and social strategies that are more frequently used in the acquisition of these skills. In this process, motivation also plays an important role. Finally, this revision suggests expanding knowledge, creating more inclusive educational policies and teaching practices in terms of learning strategies, especially in Spanish-speaking countries, such as Colombia.

This study examined variations in the development of classroom aggression popularity norms, as well as the role of homeroom teachers' aggression beliefs and students' perceptions of teachers' support as predictors of such variations. To achieve this goal, a sample of 63 classrooms were assessed at four time points during a school year, in nine Colombian schools. Results indicated that, overall, classroom aggression popularity norms have a nonlinear trajectory with an increase that peaks at the end of the school year. Also, we found that teachers' aggression beliefs were concurrently associated with aggression popularity norms across time, and that teachers' support prevented the increase in these norms. These findings are discussed considering their practical implications for preventing aggression in the school context.

Gabriel Garcia Marquez is always keen on presenting to the people the various facets of their history. His literary language acts as effective means for describing the critical historical aspects of Latin America because the legacy of colonialism had destroyed so many important traces of the native culture of that area. This has led him to search for his identity by looking at various periods, before and after colonization. Because of this, the historical and cultural issues were his main thematic subject matters; such as savagely fought wars of independence, bloody conflict between the political parties, massacre of banana workers, deplorable effects of Hispanic culture on the community.

Evidence of cultural comparisons of gender-identity-measurement scales is scarce. The present study aims to assess the scalar invariance of two dimensions of a widely used gender identity scale (Egan and Perry's Multidimensional Gender Identity Inventory) across two cultural contexts. Fourth, sixth, and fifth graders from Barranquilla (Colombia) and Montréal (Canada) (n = 351) completed an abbreviated, self-report revised version of Egan and Perry's scale. A Confirmatory Factor Analysis demonstrated that typicality and pressure to conform to traditional gender roles are distinct factors and tend to be stable over time. Furthermore, a multi-group comparison analysis showed that the measurement model did not vary significantly as a function of cultural context. Our study adds evidence to support the use of a reliable and valid measurement instrument that is invariant across cultural settings, to allow comparisons that do not depend on contextual variations in the assessment of gender identity during childhood.

Safety is essential for life. To survive, humans and other animals have developed sets of psychological and physiological adaptations known as life history (LH) tradeoff strategies in response to various safety constraints. Evolutionarily selected LH strategies in turn regulate development and behavior to optimize survival under prevailing safety conditions. The present study tested LH hypotheses concerning safety based on a 6-year longitudinal sample of 1,245 adolescents and their parents from 9 countries. The results revealed that, invariant across countries, environmental harshness, and unpredictability (lack of safety) was negatively associated with slow LH behavioral profile, measured 2 years later, and slow LH behavioral profile was negatively and positively associated with externalizing behavior and academic performance, respectively, as measured an additional 2 years later. These results support the evolutionary conception that human development responds to environmental safety cues through LH regulation of social and learning behaviors.

This article examines an urban project in Medellin, Colombia's second city, that sought to form social life by forming space: the city's metropolitan railway (Metro), which started operations at the end of 1995 and became the impetus of the inner city's renewal during the 1990s. The article begins with some background information on Medellin's urban crisis and an explanation of the methods by which the author generated and analyzed her empirical data. It then seeks to expose some of the unspoken assumptions and connotations carried by the keywords that influenced Medellin's 1990s public debates. It goes on to give empirical evidence of how contested Medellin was discursively and materially re-constructed and re-signified during the 1990s in order to rise like a phoenix at the turn of the century. It deals with the Metro's architectural and educational strategies directed to "recapture" Medellin's public space and to rebuild social cohesion. Recapturing public space meant, above all, revitalizing the inner city by stimulating commercial investment. Finally, it concludes that conventions for dealing with diversity were reached in the discursive public sphere. The revitalized material public space, by contrast, became a barometer of how far people involved in the 1990s debates had actually been empowered to negotiate basic constitutional civil rights with the state. This paper seeks to give evidence of parallel potentials in Medellin's condition of modernity: self-destruction together with self-reflection. (Contains 3 figures and 19 footnotes.)

Describes the lives of street children in two South American cities. Explains the mores, sanctions, and values of the society in which these children live. (PCB)

Garden eels are known to form large single-species colonies on the sandy bottom of tropical nearshore areas throughout the world's oceans. Passing divers are met by areas full of almost identical snake-like creatures, with their upper bodies protruding out of their burrows, in which they retract quickly as intruders approach. However, during a 15-day expedition to the Gorgona Island, in the Pacific Ocean of Colombia, it was discovered that the garden eels might not be so identical after all in that area. Between August and September 2019, individuals of both Heteroconger klausewitzi and Heteroconger pellegrini were observed co-existing in the same colony, which was previously believed to be exclusively comprised of the species H. klausewitzi. Photo and video evidence of this co-existence was obtained, and three individuals of H. pellegrini were collected. A ratio of 95.9% of H. pellegrini and 4.1% of H. klausewitzi was obtained from counting individuals appearing in the obtained videos. Heteroconger klausewitzi was found at depths greater than 12 m, while H. pellegrini was present from 5 to 12 m depth. This appears to be the first report of the existence of multi-species colonies in garden eels, suggesting it is a new case of inter-species colony association in fishes, which opens a new window for ecological and social behavior studies. In addition to multi-species coexistence, this work also is the first report of H. pellegrini in South America (i.e., Colombia), extending its distribution range southward by approximately 550 km. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The first goal of the current research was to study the short-term developmental patterns of ingroup and outgroup prosocial behavior during the middle adolescence stage among Uruguayan and Colombian adolescents. The second goal was to study the probability of inclusion in each trajectory class arising from gratitude and forgiveness (understood as the absence of negative emotions and the presence of positive emotions toward an aggressor) while controlling for gender and age. The study included two short-term longitudinal samples from two Latin American countries: Colombia (N = 212, M age = 13.82 years, SD = 1.25) and Uruguay (N = 269, M age = 14.02 years, SD = 1.39). The data were collected at three time points within a 3-month interval. The first finding indicated that different patterns in ingroup and outgroup prosocial behavior in adolescents emerged in both Latin American countries. Moreover, two classes-high and low-were identified in the trajectory of ingroup prosocial behavior, while three different classes-high, moderate, and low-were found in the trajectory of outgroup prosocial behavior in both countries. The results indicated that high levels of gratitude increased the probability that Uruguayan adolescents were included in the group of adolescents with high levels of ingroup prosocial behavior. High levels of positive emotions toward an aggressor (a dimension of forgiveness) increased the probability that a Colombian adolescent belonged to the group of adolescents with high levels of ingroup prosociality. Regarding outgroup prosocial behavior, different predictors were also identified between the countries. The results indicated that high levels of gratitude and positive emotions toward an aggressor increased the probability that Uruguayan adolescents were included in the group of adolescents with high or moderate levels of outgroup prosocial behavior. Only positive emotions toward an aggressor increased the probability that Colombian adolescents were included in the group of adolescents with high or moderate levels of outgroup prosocial behavior., (© 2023 Society for Research on Adolescence.)

In order to assess the association between the vocalizations and the displayed behaviors of the Golden-shouldered Mountain Cacique (Cacicus chrysonotus leucoramphus), we sampled both acoustic and behavioral features at three sites in the Andes of Nariño, southern Colombia. We obtained seven vocalization types, six of them associated with at least one of the three identified behavioral categories (vigilance, alertness, and territorial defense), and one linked with a courtship exhibition. Vocalizations with higher values of bandwidth and frequency modulations were associated with territorial behavior, whereas those with lower values of bandwidth and few frequency modulations were associated with vigilance and alert. Results showed similarities in the acoustic structure of vocalizations and the related social context with other species as the C. cela and C. haemorrhous. C. c. leucoramphus uses specific types of vocalizations in a particular social context, with some vocalizations used in different behaviors. This study describes for the first time the social context in which vocalizations are associated with their behaviors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista Facultad de Medicina de la Universidad Nacional de Colombia is the property of Universidad Nacional de Colombia and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Sociosexuality refers to an individual's disposition to have casual sex without establishing affective bonds and has been widely studied worldwide using the Revised Sociosexual Orientation Inventory (SOI-R; Penke & Asendorpf, 2008). Despite its many validations in different cultural contexts, no psychometric analyses of this instrument have been conducted in Spanish-speaking Latin American countries. To address this gap in the literature, we examined the psychometric properties of the SOI-R in Colombia. In a cross-sectional study with a large sample of participants (N = 812; 64% women), we conducted exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses to identify different factor structures and determine which had the best fit for our sample and examined the reliability of the scale. Results showed that a three-factor structure, with sociosexual behaviors, attitudes, and desire as first-order factors, and global sociosexuality as a second-order factor, had the best fit indexes. Each factor presented good reliability indexes. Replicating already established gender differences, we also found that men scored higher on each factor when compared to women. These findings show that the SOI-R is a reliable and valid instrument to assess sociosexuality in countries where sociosexuality research is underrepresented., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

Forest fragmentation and habitat loss are two of the main drivers of wildlife population declines. Animals exposed to habitat disturbances must develop behavioral strategies to adapt to novel, rapidly fluctuating socioecological challenges. Understanding the behavioral flexibility of endangered primates as a response to ecological challenges, e.g., anthropogenic habitat disturbance, is a key element in the design of successful conservation initiatives for remaining populations. We studied the social behavior of a group of 11 adult and subadult brown spider monkeys ( Ateles hybridus) living in a recently isolated and densely populated forest fragment in the Magdalena River Valley, Colombia, and compared their behavior to that of other wild spider monkey populations. From June 2009 to July 2010 we assessed diet, activity budgets, and the rates of affiliative and agonistic interactions initiated and received by adult male and female spider monkeys. The diet of our focal group was quite different from that in most previous studies of Ateles: leaves accounted for ca. 40 % of their diet, and fruits represented barely half of their diet, suggesting that this population has had to adjust its feeding strategies to the local ecological challenges. We found no sex differences in the time males and females spent resting, moving, and socializing, but females tended to invest more time in feeding than males did. Male-to-female aggression was the most common agonistic interaction, and same-sex aggressions were almost absent. We found no significant differences in rates of grooming or embracing between the different types of dyads. The resemblance of our results to those of similar studies in less disturbed habitats suggests that spider monkeys might adapt to certain levels of ecological and social disturbance, at least initially, and are a starting point to understand better the initial effects of fragmentation on the behavioral repertoire of these primates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista de Psicología (1669-2438) is the property of Pontificia Universidad Catolica Argentina and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Introduction: The healthy aging phenotype is present in those individuals that age with low morbidity, no functional or cognitive deterioration, and retain an acceptable level of wellness and social participation. Objective: To establish the frequency of the healthy aging phenotype in older people in the community using a multidimensional, a biomedical, and a psychosocial model and to identify the predicting factors in each model. Materials and methods: We conducted a cross-sectional, observational and descriptive study. We assessed individuals (n= 402; 50.1% female) aged 65 years or older (69.2 years average) from the urban area of Manizales. The healthy aging phenotype included five domains: biomarkers of physiological and metabolic health, physical capability, cognitive function, and social and psychological wellbeing. We also analyzed sociodemographic- and health-related factors. Results: In the multidimensional model the prevalence of the healthy aging phenotype was 15.5% while in the biomedical model it was 12.3% and in the psychosocial one it was 63.3%. Good self-perceived health was an independent predictor of healthy aging in all the models assessed. Having enough income was a predictor in the biomedical and psychosocial models while being married was the only significant predictor in the psychosocial model. Conclusions: The prevalence of the healthy aging phenotype was low in the biological and multidimensional models (1 of every 10 individuals) and higher in the psychosocial one (6 of every 10 persons). However, independent predictor factors were the same in all models: Self-perceived good or very good health, having enough income and being married.

War deteriorates the quality of life of the population and profoundly alters social dynamics. We discuss a rural community in northern Colombia whose population was the victim of a massacre and examine the main components that model social cohesion: (a) positive attitudes towards the community, (b) prosocial behaviours and (c) interpersonal relationships. This investigation is a cross-sectional empirical study that includes an analysis of social support networks. The research involved 106 residents, (81.1%, women), with an average age of 42.5 years (standard deviation (SD) = 16.4), who have lived in the community an average 28.8 years (SD = 18.75). Cluster analysis shows that there are two types of personal networks based on homophily and the duration of the ego-alter relationship. The networks that provide the most types of social support shows a moderate level of homophily according to the type of relationship and place of origin and in which the duration of the ego-alter relationship is shorter, compared to networks characterized by high homophily and in which the duration of the ego-alter relationship is longer ( χ ² = 5.609, p < 0.018). Homophily based on place of residence actively affects the sense of community and social cohesion. Moreover, the sense of community is the variable that most affects social cohesion (β = 0.650; p < 0.001) and is, in turn, determined by prosocial behaviour (β = 0.267; p < 0.006). However, prosocial behaviours do not significantly affect interpersonal relationships or community cohesion. The results are discussed to promote social development strategies aimed at building individual, organizational and community capacity to foster psychosocial well-being in post-war contexts.

Introduction: One of the experiences that represent the biggest risk for any society is child abuse. Despite the consequences of this form of violence, it tends to be a hidden and little understood phenomenon. The reason why parents mistreat their children has been one of the issues that has raised the most interest in the investigation of this phenomenon., Objective: To determine how the history of child abuse in adults is related to abusive behaviour directed at their own children., Methodology: A cross-sectional study, based on a source of secondary information. The study included sociodemographic variables, variables related to violent behaviours directed to other people, pro-social factors and the use of psychoactive substances. From this population, 2 groups were selected, parents who were abusive and parents who were not abusive towards their own children. In both groups the frequency of different factors that could explain the probability of abusive behaviour of the adults towards their children was evaluated. We analysed the association between aggressive behaviour against one's own children and having a history of child abuse. As a measure of association, the OR was used with its respective 95% confidence interval and P-value<.05., Results: 187 adults were included, 63.1% were women. The median [IQR] age was 38 [24-52] years. The abusive behaviour of the parents towards their children was associated with: the female sex (OR=2.23; 95%CI, 1.13-4.40), partner's aggression (OR=3.28; 95%CI, 1.58-6.80), aggression towards other people outside the family (OR=2.66; 95%CI, 1.05-6.74), pro-social behaviour (OR=0.32; 95%CI, 0.14-0.73), and dysfunctional behavioural traits (OR=2.23; 95%CI, 1.11-4.52). There was no association with the history of child abuse (OR=1.54; 95%CI, 0.59-4.04)., Conclusions: The history of abuse in the parents' childhood was not associated with abusive behaviour towards their children. Other forms of partner's violence and non-family violence were associated, suggesting that child abuse in the study population was related to other expressions of family and social violence., (Copyright © 2017 Asociación Colombiana de Psiquiatría. Publicado por Elsevier España, S.L.U. All rights reserved.)

Chagas disease (CD) is a Latin America endemic and neglected tropical disease that affects primarily poor people living in rural areas. Its current low profile leads to many diagnostic, treatment, and control challenges. This study aimed to identify and characterize the sociocultural dynamics that influence CD health care in Colombia. Data for our ethnographic study was collected in 2013 and included participant observation in two main endemic areas in Colombia. In addition, 81 people belonging to four groups (patients and family members; health care workers; researchers; and officers) were recruited through snowball sampling technique and participated in informal and semi-structured interviews. People from the first two groups also participated in social cartography excercises. Data analysis resulted in the identification of three main sociocultural dynamics. Local Understandings: Patients reported confusions around disease transmission, treatment effectiveness and development of future complications. Providers' Knowledge and Training: Failures in professional's knowledge and training mostly affect the primary level of care in rural areas. Professionals undergo minimal training during medical school and lack access to continuous education. In contrast, clinicians working at tertiary university hospitals or at the CD unit of the Colombian National Institute of Health (NIH) exhibited great knowledge and competency. Health Care System Barriers: The Colombian market-based health care reform augmented access barriers, which impacted CD care greatly. We identified geographic and bureaucratic itineraries that depended on type of insurance plan, insurance contracts with service providing institutions, and levels of care. This study shows that people's experience of these sociocultural dynamics vary depending on their mobility from rural to urban contexts. It unveils the importance of analyzing the structure of the health care system. In the Colombian case, its for-profit orientation has become one of the most important obstacles for comprehensive, integrated, and timely health care responses., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: The complementary feeding (CF) comprises a period in the life of the infant that starts with the introduction of foods other than breast-milk. It is determined by social and environmental factors which facilitate or limit the appropriate initiation of this practice, directly affecting the nutri tional and health status of children., Objective: To identify barriers and facilities for the follow-up of nutritional recommendations regarding the early start of CF in children between 0 and 24 months of age belonging to a comprehensive early childhood care program., Materials and Methods: Phenome nological, longitudinal, qualitative study in which 43 in-depth interviews and 11 focus-groups were carried out. Predefined categories were the context of the mother, representations and experiences of gestation, meanings and experiences of breastfeeding (BF), and CF. The analysis included the rela tionships between the units of meaning and predefined and emerging categories., Results: The CF is a social practice which is the result of medical and popular knowledge mixture, however, the degree of influence that the latter has on mothers is higher due to the degree of support that they have from their close circle, especially from mothers, grandmothers, and women of the family. The lack of con ceptual and practical knowledge about exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) and CF prevents mothers from carrying out good practices. Most of them do not know clearly what is involved in the EBF, resulting in an early start of CF, or do not have objective criteria to assess their milk production. Despite having received specific training, CF started early in most cases, a fact in which close family influence was decisive., Conclusions: The CF experience is strongly influenced by sociocultural aspects not only of the mother but of her immediate circle, and the recommendations they received from health pro fessionals are not enough to change their practices. Therefore, it is necessary to improve CF support interventions.

Objective: The need to build public health systems that ensure comprehensive child development enables a characterization of the factors that favor or restrict the integral development of children under the age of six. That is in order to identify them as necessary components to be taken into account in public policies., Method: A survey was carried out with 1 177 mothers or family caregivers of children under six years old in 16 municipalities of Cundinamarca and Boyacá, and the respective socio-cognitive development of their own sons and daughters was measured with the Haizea-Llevant table and also tasks related to the use of core knowledge systems., Results: Through bivariate and multivariate statistical analyzes, it was found that the factors that are significant to address a public health proposal that seeks the integral development of children under six years of age are: socio-economic conditions of households, complications in childbirth, the starting age of solid foods, mothers' working shifts, rules on daily routines and play practices such as reading, painting and sport activities., Conclusions: A health system that acknowledges the results presented should offer specialized care that seeks welfare in childhood and early childhood, which can only be achieved if health policies begin to consider domestic and daily factors that cannot be excluded from public policies and it should guarantee different levels of intervention of social and particular impact.

Dengue is known to transmit between humans and A. aegypti mosquitoes living in neighboring houses. Although transmission is thought to be highly heterogeneous in both space and time, little is known about the patterns and drivers of transmission in groups of houses in endemic settings. We carried out surveys of PCR positivity in children residing in 2-block patches of highly endemic cities of Colombia. We found high levels of heterogeneity in PCR positivity, varying from less than 30% in 8 of the 10 patches to 56 and 96%, with the latter patch containing 22 children simultaneously PCR positive (PCR22) for DEN2. We then used an agent-based model to assess the likely eco-epidemiological context of this observation. Our model, simulating daily dengue dynamics over a 20 year period in a single two block patch, suggests that the observed heterogeneity most likely derived from variation in the density of susceptible people. Two aspects of human adaptive behavior were critical to determining this density: external social relationships favoring viral introduction (by susceptible residents or infectious visitors) and immigration of households from non-endemic areas. External social relationships generating frequent viral introduction constituted a particularly strong constraint on susceptible densities, thereby limiting the potential for explosive outbreaks and dampening the impact of heightened vectorial capacity. Dengue transmission can be highly explosive locally, even in neighborhoods with significant immunity in the human population. Variation among neighborhoods in the density of local social networks and rural-to-urban migration is likely to produce significant fine-scale heterogeneity in dengue dynamics, constraining or amplifying the impacts of changes in mosquito populations and cross immunity between serotypes.

Numerous animal species currently experience habitat loss and fragmentation. This might result in behavioral and dietary adjustments, especially because fruit availability is frequently reduced in fragments. Food scarcity can result in elevated physiological stress levels, and chronic stress often has detrimental effects on individuals. Some animal species exhibit a high degree of fission-fusion dynamics, and theory predicts that these species reduce intragroup feeding competition by modifying their subgroup size according to resource availability. Until now, however, there have been few studies on how species with such fission-fission dynamics adjust their grouping patterns and social behavior in small fragments or on how food availability influences their stress levels. We collected data on fruit availability, feeding behavior, stress hormone levels (measured through fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGCM)), subgroup size, and aggression for two groups of brown spider monkeys (Ateles hybridus) in a small forest fragment in Colombia and examined whether fruit availability influences these variables. Contrary to our predictions, spider monkeys ranged in smaller subgroups, had higher FGCM levels and higher aggression rates when fruit availability was high compared to when it was low. The atypical grouping pattern of the study groups seems to be less effective at mitigating contest competition over food resources than more typical fission-fusion patterns. Overall, our findings illustrate that the relationship between resource availability, grouping patterns, aggression rates, and stress levels can be more complex than assumed thus far. Additional studies are needed to investigate the long-term consequences on the health and persistence of spider monkeys in fragmented habitats., (© 2014 The Authors. American Journal of Primatology Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Objective: To conduct a descriptive review of the concepts related to the practice of healthy habits by identifying the main variables associated with their managment in terms of health promotion actions., Methodology: In consultation with groups working in health promotion in the city of performed by consulting databases and documentary sources. The strategy and criteria for the selection of documents was previously defined. Finally, we proceeded to organizing and structuring the information., Results: It was established that, to promote healthy habits, four groups of behavior are involved: a) consumption, b) phyisical activity and hygiene, c) safety, and d) social participation. All of these are reviewed in order to point out the main concepts contained in each., Conclusion: The promotion of healthy habits must involve not only the transmission of behaviors associated with them. It must also involve understanding and adapting these habits to the environments of life in which people operate, with consideration for the different roles that they perform and the psychological and cultural demands that each space implies.

Rigorous evidence regarding the impact of early care and education on children's development comes primarily from high-income nations. A few studies from Latin America and the Caribbean have identified benefits of conditional cash transfer and home visiting programs on children's development. However, there is still controversy around the impact and cost-effectiveness of childcare approaches. Further research is needed to understand how scaled-up childcare settings may support the development of low-income children in Latin America. To that end, the present study sought to identify the effects of exposure to a subsidized childcare program in Colombia on children's nutritional status, cognitive and socioemotional development. This community-based program, known as Hogares Comunitarios de Bienestar (HCB), serves 800 thousand low-income children under age 6, delivering home-based childcare, supplementary nutrition, and psychosocial stimulation. We analyzed data on 10,173 program beneficiary children (ages 3-6) collected in 2007. We compared beneficiary children who had been in the program for a long time with beneficiary children who had been in the program for a month or less, by age group, to estimate program exposure effects. We used a matching estimator to correct for self-selection into different exposure levels. Results indicated that cognitive development improved 0.15 to 0.3 of a standard deviation (SD) after at least 15 months of exposure for children between 3 and 6 years of age. Socioemotional skills improved 0.12 to 0.3 SD for children older than 3 after at least 15 months of program exposure. No significant gains were found for nutritional status. The estimated benefit-cost ratio ranged from 1.0 to 2.7, depending upon varying discount rates. Findings lend support for a potentially effective strategy to promote the development of low-income children in Colombia and other developing nations., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

We evaluated population density, group structure and home range of red howler monkeys in a bamboo forest fragment in the Cordillera Central mountain range of Colombia. We estimated a density of 377.7 individuals/km(2), which is a higher density than normally reported for this species. The average home range size was 3.6 ± 1.1 ha. We found large groups (15.1 ± 4.0 individuals) with subgrouping behavior (daily divisions in foraging subgroups), and a high number of adult and subadult individuals of both sexes per group (mean of 5 males and 7 females per group). The small home range and large group size observed may be related to the high density of howler monkeys in this fragment, which we suggest could be the result of limited dispersal opportunities for these monkeys. The results illustrate the great plasticity of the genus Alouatta, which enables the monkeys to live in a wide range of conditions., (Copyright © 2012 S. Karger AG, Basel.)

Objective: To identify and analyse the social representations (SRs) of tuberculosis (TB) among three groups of people in Medellin, Colombia, with the purpose of contributing to improvements in TB treatment and control programme activities., Methods: Cross-sectional study using free word association and evocative analysis techniques in 1049 persons within a structural SR framework., Results: The terms 'cough', 'contagion', 'illness' and 'fear' were found to be components of the central core in the three groups. In the peripheral system, 'rejection' and 'treatment' were considered modifiable factors. Text analysis showed that 'fear' and 'compassion' are associated with evocations among patients and their relatives, 'contagion' among lay people and 'isolation' among health care personnel., Discussion: Fear of infection may have a negative effect on relationships with patients, health care activities, treatment surveillance and family support for patients. A better understanding of patient beliefs and their family environment can improve treatment quality and adherence in the city.

Background: Epidemiological studies show wide variability in the occurrence of cannabis smoking and related disorders across countries. This study aims to estimate cross-national variation in cannabis users' experience of clinically significant cannabis-related problems in three countries of the Americas, with a focus on cannabis users who may have tried alcohol or tobacco, but who have not used cocaine, heroin, LSD, or other internationally regulated drugs., Methods: Data are from the World Mental Health Surveys Initiative and the National Latino and Asian American Study, with probability samples in Mexico (n = 4426), Colombia (n = 5,782) and the United States (USA; n = 8,228). The samples included 212 'cannabis only' users in Mexico, 260 in Colombia and 1,724 in the USA. Conditional GLM with GEE and 'exact' methods were used to estimate variation in the occurrence of clinically significant problems in cannabis only (CO) users across these surveyed populations., Results: The experience of cannabis-related problems was quite infrequent among CO users in these countries, with weighted frequencies ranging from 1% to 5% across survey populations, and with no appreciable cross-national variation in general. CO users in Colombia proved to be an exception. As compared to CO users in the USA, the Colombia smokers were more likely to have experienced cannabis-associated 'social problems' (odds ratio, OR = 3.0; 95% CI = 1.4, 6.3; p = 0.004) and 'legal problems' (OR = 9.7; 95% CI = 2.7, 35.2; p = 0.001)., Conclusions: This study's most remarkable finding may be the similarity in occurrence of cannabis-related problems in this cross-national comparison within the Americas. Wide cross-national variations in estimated population-level cumulative incidence of cannabis use disorders may be traced to large differences in cannabis smoking prevalence, rather than qualitative differences in cannabis experiences. More research is needed to identify conditions that might make cannabis-related social and legal problems more frequent in Colombia than in the USA.

Objective: To assess health-related quality of life (HRQOL) of individuals with Spinal Cord Injury (SCI) in Neiva, Colombia., Design: Cross-sectional., Participants/methods: 40 Colombians with SCI and 42 age- and gender-matched controls completed the SF-36, a self-report measure composed of eight component areas (physical health problems, role limitations due to personal or emotional problems, emotional well-being, social functioning, energy/fatigue, and general health perceptions)., Results: Compared to healthy controls, individuals with SCI had significantly lower means on five SF-36 subscales: physical functioning (22.5 vs. 94.0; p < 0.001), role limitations due to physical problems (54.4 vs. 77.4; p < 0.01), social functioning (67.5 vs. 80.1; p < 0.05), pain (65.4 vs. 79.5; p < 0.01), and general health (54.9 vs. 69.4; p < 0.01). Both groups scored similarly on the SF-36 emotional well-being subscale., Conclusion: Individuals with SCI from Neiva, Colombia report having poorer quality of life across various domains than healthy controls, primarily in the area of physical functioning. These findings suggest the need for rehabilitation health professionals to develop and implement interventions to improve HRQOL in individuals with SCI.

Objective: Determining the characteristics and level of bullying in state schools in Ciudad Bolivar (Locality 19) in Bogotá, Colombia., Material and Methods: A sample of 3 226 basic education students was taken, the students being in the sixth to eleventh grades in state schools in the locality of Ciudad Bolivar in Bogotá. The data was collected by applying a survey in which the perception of bullying in the schools was established. SPSS 14.0 was used for statistical analysis., Results: This research took statistical results indicating the level of indifference, aggressiveness and other kinds of violence in the schools. The initial conclusion was that a high percent of students were rejected and humiliated by their peers. The level of bullying depended on the students' scholastic level rather than their socioeconomic level. Bullying situations such as giving students nicknames which they did not like or not including them in class activities were more frequent in the sixth, seventh and eighth grades. Overall, intensity and strategic indices revealed that school is a place where each day brings more suffering, where many violent situations may arise thereby making students feel afraid and that this affects the children's life for a high percentage of the students., Conclusions: The student community from the locality of Ciudad Bolivar in Bogotá, Colombia, is affected by a high number of bullying situations.

Ninety-six Colombian children (mean age = 7.7 years) and adolescents (mean age = 14.6 years) made judgments about stealing and physical harm in the abstract and in the context of survival and revenge. All participants judged it wrong to steal or hurt others because of considerations with justice and welfare, and most also judged it wrong to engage in such actions even when they can aid in survival. Their judgments in the context of revenge were more mixed, with a sizable proportion endorsing stealing and hurting in that condition. Furthermore, the majority expected that people would steal and hurt others in most situations. Significant age differences were also found. The consequences of political violence for moral development are discussed.

Background: Expectancies such as memories, motivations and emotions towards alcohol are an important predictor of alcohol consumption in the population. The Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire (AEQ-III) can measure objectively these expectancies., Aim: To study which expectancies are associated to alcohol consumption in adults living in Bucaramanga, Colombia., Material and Methods: The AEQ-III was applied to 601 adults (334 males) aged 18 to 60 years. A binomial regression was used to determine the expectancies that were associated with alcohol consumption after adjusting for social and demographic variables., Results: Eighty nine percent of the population consumes alcohol, without differences by age, gender, body mass index, educational or socioeconomic level. Positive expectancies related to disinhibition and feelings of power with a prevalence ratio (PR) of 1.33 (95% confidence intervals of1.06-1.67) and an age of less than 16 years when alcohol consumption started, with a PR of 1.15 (95% confidence intervals of 1.08-1.23), were the only two explanatory variables for alcohol consumption., Conclusions: Alcohol consumption is more associated with social context and group integration than with individual behaviors.

The influenza pandemic of 1918-1919 was one of the most severe recorded in Colombia. There were 1,900 deaths in the capital, Bogota. The poor and unprotected were the most affected. Care of victims was the responsibility of the Junta de Socorros, a private body. Based on different primary sources (mostly official documents, Junta de Socorros reports, newspapers, and medical journals) this article explores how the 1918 influenza pandemic altered Bogotá's social dynamics, with particular attention to its impact on disease and mortality rates and to an analysis of how the city's sanitary conditions and political-institutional decisions and the reactions of different social sectors influenced the response of this human community to the pandemic.

A female spider monkey (Ateles belzebuth belzebuth) that gave birth to twins was studied during 13 months, and her activity budget and diet were compared to those of females with single offspring and females with no offspring to assess selective pressures that could influence litter size. We recorded qualitative information on the development and social interactions of the twins and three other single infants. Emi, the female that had the twins, had the highest proportion of resting time and the lowest proportion of feeding and moving time compared to other adult females and males. Emi also had the lowest average daily travel distance and relied more heavily on flowers and leaves than other group members who included a higher proportion of fruits in their diets. These results suggest that twins are energetically costly to spider monkeys because of the direct energy allocated into raising and carrying the twins and, also, because these costs have direct effects in the ability of a mother to obtain high-quality resources (e.g., fruits). The twins had a slower rate of physical and social development as well as a smaller body size compared to same-aged singletons by the end of the study. Thus, the extended periods of maternal care and the costs associated with rearing and carrying offspring are some of the factors that influence the evolution and maintenance of a litter size of one in most anthropoid primates.

Associations between domestic violence exposure and violent and prosocial behavior were tested in a sample of Colombian adolescents, with attention to impulsivity and substance use problems as mediators of these associations. A representative sample of 1,152 school youths and a convenience group of 148 juvenile offenders aged 11-19 years participated. Results using structural equation modeling showed indirect effects of impulsivity and substance use problems between family violence (i.e., exposure to interparental violence) and violent behavior. Maltreatment (i.e., harsh parenting) was directly associated with violent behavior, though impulsivity and substance use problems also mediated this relation. Maltreatment directly and inversely contributed to prosocial behavior but there was no evidence of mediation. Results are discussed in terms of cognitive and behavioral factors that explain violent and prosocial behavior among Colombian youths. Limitations and implications for prevention are described.

Spider monkeys exhibit a fission-fusion type of social organization. I studied party size and party composition in wild long-haired spider monkeys (Ateles belzebuth belzebuth) in three study periods at La Macarena, Colombia and found that overall party size was larger in the fruit-abundant season. Mean party size in which males were observed was relatively stable across seasons. In contrast, the mean party size of females varied. Females were observed in larger parties in the fruit-abundant season than in the fruit-scarce season. Moreover, whereas males associated with each other at an almost equal frequency across seasons, females associated with each other more frequently in the fruit-abundant season. Females with infants or small juveniles were more often in association with other individuals than were cycling females. The intensity of individual relationships varied according to season, such that even mothers and sons were not always strongly associated. In a large party, females with infants may gain from predation avoidance but they are at a disadvantage in terms of scramble competition. The balance between these factors may change with fruit availability and may influence party size in different periods. For males, party formation may facilitate the defense of resources from neighboring groups more than provide predation avoidance.

The authors explored the cultural constructs of individualism and collectivism by investigating the prosocial behavior of 1st graders (N = 202; 110 girls, 92 boys) in countries typically classified as collectivist (Colombia, South America) and individualist (United States). Contrary to expectations, U.S. children shared more than Colombian children did. However, U.S. children were more likely to take candy from another child without permission (demonstrating individualism). Results indicated that in both countries sharing was greater with friends than with other fellow classmates, and children frequently reported friendship as the reason they shared. Findings support the importance of the social context, such as the relationship between participants, in cross-cultural research and suggest that simple dichotomies of culture often overlook complex associations between culture and behavioral differences.

Daily behaviour patterns in a hunter-gatherer community of Colombian Indians show that individual activities are regulated by ultradian behaviour cycles of about 2 hr and that these cycles can be synchronised by social interaction. A computer model was developed which simulated an artificial community and generated dynamic portraits of locomotor activity and social aggregation similar to those of the observed community of Colombian Indians. Social phase-locking of ultradian behaviour cycles occurred, contributing to the safety of group members and their economy of effort in gathering and related activities. Social synchronisation of ultradian behaviour cycles may also have occurred in early hominid groups.