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Ganhua education has been viewed by some scholars as holding a critical position in the correctional system of the People's Republic of China (PRC), for achieving its primary target of imprisonment: rehabilitation. This article aims to redress this argument. Drawing on interviews undertaken with 30 female parolees/ex-prisoners and 10 prison officers, this article argues that the Ganhua education in prison, which is strongly imprinted with the key concept of Relational-Cultural Theory (RCT) that "connection promotes growth," is ineffective and is unable to empower women to grow, change, and consequently open to rehabilitation at selected female prisons. This article suggests that the RCT is theoretically problematic in producing a "new person," for the reason of its unawareness of contextualized culture, values, and situations in prison. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Officers are a valuable resource for prisons across the globe. Working in corrections is a demanding job with a higher-than-average risk of job burnout. Most prison burnout studies have focused on staff working in Western prisons, particularly those in the U.S. These studies have generally found an association between work attitudes and burnout among prison officers. However, a key question is whether the associations are universal or contextual, varying by nation. The current study examined the link between the major work attitudes of job involvement, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment and the burnout dimensions of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and feeling ineffective at work among staff at two Chinese prisons. According to the results of ordinary least squares multivariate regression tests, job involvement, and job satisfaction had significant negative effects on emotional exhaustion, but commitment did not. Only job involvement had significant negative effects on depersonalization. Job involvement and organizational commitment had significant negative effects on feeling ineffective, while job satisfaction had non-significant effects. The results indicate that the major work attitudes are negatively linked to job burnout for the studied Chinese prison staff; efforts should be undertaken to build these work attitudes to reduce burnout since burnout is linked to negative consequences for officers, inmates, and the prison. Based on previous research and current findings, some of the effects of work attitudes appear to be universal, and others appear to be contextual. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Large scale rural-to-urban migration and China's household registration system have resulted in about 61 million children being left-behind in rural villages when their parents migrate to the cities. This paper uses survey and experimental data from male rural-urban migrants – prison inmates and comparable non-inmates – to examine whether parental absence in childhood as a result of migration is associated with increased criminality in adulthood. Control functions and sibling fixed effects are used to identify causal impacts. Parental absence due to migration is found to increase the propensity of adult males to commit crimes. Being left-behind decreases educational attainment and increases risk-loving behavior, both of which increase criminality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To evaluate the impact of the CD4 count on ESAT6-CFP10 (EC) skin test, QuantiFERON-TB Gold In-tube test (QFT) and tuberculin skin test (TST) in a large prison and communities in Jiangsu Province among people living with HIV (PLHIV). Participants in communities were tested with the QFT and EC skin test and in prison were tested with the QFT, TST and EC skin test. A 4-knotted restricted cubic spline fitted for Logistic models was used to explore the cutoff point of CD4 count and the associations between changes in CD4 count and Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb) infection. Among 1,815 PLHIV included, 19.3% (350) were from prisons and 80.7% (1465) were identified through community screenings. M.tb infection rates were 12.2% and 8.3% through QFT and EC tests, respectively. Odd Ratios (ORs) for infection increased with CD4 counts, peaking at 618 cells/mm 3 for EC, 392 cells/mm 3 for QFT, then plateaued. However, the pattern differed for EC between prison and screening scenarios. In prison settings, M.tb infection increased with CD4 count from 0 to 350 cells/mm3, plateaued until 500 cells/mm 3 , and then persistently increased. Conversely, for community, ORs decreased until 300 cells/mm 3 , followed by an increase between 300 and 729 cells/mm 3 , after which they continued to rise persistently. Our cross-sectional study among PLHIV revealed a higher rate of M.tb infection in prison compared to the community. The relationship between CD4 count and infection became negative after a certain threshold. This pivotal point differed with detection methods, with QFT showing lower CD4 thresholds than EC., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Offender residences have become a research focus in the crime literature. However, little attention has been paid to the interactive associations between built environment factors and the residential choices of offenders. Over the past three decades, there has been an unprecedented wave of migrant workers pouring into urban centers for employment in China. Most of them flowed into urban villages within megacities. Weak personnel stability and great mobility have led to the urban villages to be closely related to decreased public safety and the deterioration of social order. The YB district in China was selected as the study area, which is located in one of the most developed cities in Southern China and has an area of approximately 800 km2 and a population of approximately four million people. This study aims to explore the associations between the neighborhood environment and the offender residences by using the geographical detector model (GeoDetector) from the perspective of interaction. The conceptual framework is based on the social disorganization theory. The results found that urban villages were the most important variable with a relatively high explanatory power. In general, taking the urban village as the carrier, various places (hotels, entertainment places, and factories) within the urban village may be more likely to include offender residences. This study also found the social disorganization theory applicable in the non-Western context. These findings may have important implications for offender residences identification, crime prevention, and the management of urban villages in Chinese cities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Views of organizational justice among correctional staff (i.e. whether they perceive that their employing organization treats them fairly) impact both staff and prisons. The two major dimensions of organizational justice are distributive justice (fairness of outcomes) and procedural justice (fairness of processes and procedures). Limited research among correctional staff in the U.S. suggests that views of distributive and procedural justice spillover, which results in a strain-based form of work-family conflict. An ordinary least squares regression analysis of data collected from two prisons in southern China indicated that distributive justice had significant negative effects on the strain-based form of work-family conflict; however, contrary to findings among U.S. staff, procedural justice did not have a signification relationship with strain-based conflict. It appears that the connection between views of organizational justice and strain-based work-family conflict might vary by nation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This methodological reflection is based on the author's own experience taking part in participatory theater projects in mainland Chinese prisons over the past 5 years. This article demonstrates how the author's participation in prison theater projects secured otherwise unattainable research access by forming collaborations with various organizations. Participatory theater workshops also offered the space for sustaining long-term rapport. This research note discusses why trusting relationships are the most important guarantee to obtaining valid data in Chinese prison research. The findings contribute to understanding methodological challenges and innovations of conducting fieldwork in criminal justice systems with no formal research access channels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Community correction institutions in China frequently employ the Symptom Checklist-90 (SCL-90) and the health survey brief (SF-12) as primary tools for psychological assessment of community correctional prisoners. However, in practical application, the SCL-90 Checklist faces issues such as complex item numbers, overall low cultural level of the subjects, and insufficient professional level of the administrators. The SF-12 health survey brief, as a preliminary screening tool, although only has 12 questions, to some extent simplifies the evaluation process and improves work efficiency, it is prone to missed screening. The research team collected 17-dimensional basic characteristic data and corresponding SCL-90 and SF-12 data from 25,480 samples of community correctional prisoners in Zhejiang Province, China. This study explored the application of multi-label multi-classification algorithms and oversampling techniques in building machine learning models to delve into the correlation between the psychological health risks of community correctional prisoners and their characteristic data. Inspired by computerized adaptive testing (CAT), we constructed an adaptive and efficient screening model for community correctional prisoners through experimental comparisons, based on the binary relevance algorithm with sample oversampling. This screening model personalize the assessment process by dynamically matching participants with the most relevant subset (s) of the nine dimensions of the SCL-90 based on their individual characteristics. Thus, adaptive dynamic simplification and personalized recommendation of the SCL-90 scale between question groups were achieved for the specific group of community correctional prisoners. As a screening tool for psychological symptoms of community correctional prisoners, this model significantly simplifies the number of questions compared to SCL-90, with a simplification rate of up to 65%. However, it achieves this simplification while maintaining excellent performance. The accuracy reached 0.66, with a sensitivity of 0.754, and an F1 score of 0.649. This innovation simplified the assessment process, reduced the assessment time, improved work efficiency, and enhanced the ability to judge the specificity of community correctional prisoners population. Compared to the SF-12, although the simplification rate and accuracy of the model are slightly lower than those of the SF-12, the sensitivity increased by 42.26%, and the F1 score improved by 15.28%. This means the model greatly reduces the possibility of missed screening, effectively preventing prisoners with abnormal psychological or mental states from losing control due to missed screening, and even committing suicide, self injury, or injuring others., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

The paper explores issues related to prisoners’ Christian conversion experiences in the Chinese context of Hong Kong: How common are conversions? What motivates them? How are they experienced? What impacts do they have? How sustainable are they and how are they to be understood? The paper works through quantitative and qualitative steps: Quantitatively, it surveys the frequency, motives, and subjective experiences of prisoners’ conversions. Through extended interviews with a small number of inmates and former inmates, the paper investigates subjective experiences of transformation and establishes factors that help to sustain conversions. Finally, the paper considers the consequences for pastoral ministry with people in prison and with ex-inmates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While both forms of organizational justice are important, the empirical literature indicates that procedural justice generally has wider and greater effects on job attitudes compared with distributive justice. Regression analysis of self-reported survey data from 322 staff at two Chinese prisons in Guangzhou suggests that, while both forms of organizational justice were important for Chinese correctional staff’s organizational commitment, distributive (but not procedural) justice had significant positive associations with both job involvement and job satisfaction. This emphasis on distributive justice differs from what has been empirically found for U.S. correctional staff. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Job satisfaction has been linked to many positive outcomes, such as greater work performance, increased organizational commitment, reduced job burnout, decreased absenteeism, and lower turnover intent/turnover. A substantial body of research has examined how work environment variables are linked to job satisfaction among U.S. correctional staff; far less research has examined prison staff in non-Western nations, especially China. Using survey data collected from two prisons in Guangzhou, China, this study investigated the level of job satisfaction among prison staff and how personal characteristics (i.e., gender, tenure, age, and educational level) and work environment variables (i.e., perceived dangerousness of the job, job variety, supervision, instrumental communication, and input into decision making) affect job satisfaction. The findings from ordinary least squares regression equations indicated that the work environment variables explained a greater proportion of the variance in the job satisfaction measure than the personal characteristics. In the full multivariate regression model, gender was the only personal characteristic to have a significant association with job satisfaction, with female staff reporting higher satisfaction. Input into decision making and job variety had significant positive associations, whereas dangerousness had a significant negative relationship with job satisfaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electronic monitoring (EM) was introduced to Belgium in the late 1990s and ever since its use has been changing and expanding. The objectives and political discourse driving the introduction and expansion of EM have varied between encouraging (re)integration, solving the prison overcrowding and increasing the credibility of prison sentence execution. This article describes the evolution of EM and focuses on the shift from the EM-practice of balancing technical control and supervision towards the ever more expanding EM-use prioritising technical control. Where EM was formerly an individualised integrated measure in a broader rehabilitative framework, its use for a large number of prisoners has evolved towards the use of EM as a stand-alone measure. As such, we are witnessing a shift from ‘active’ to ‘passive’ reintegration for the majority of those being subjected to EM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the empirical study on the commutation procedure at prison X, located in East China's P city, this article highlights that during the period between 2011 and 2013, there were higher chances of commutation for three types of convicted “Haves” prisoners, which include those criminals convicted for duty crime, financial crime and gangland crime. This finding is to some extent consistent with the Party Capability Theory, which hypothesizes that those who are rich or powerful can more easily win or hold advantage in legal procedures. However, the Party Capability Theory alone is insufficient to explain the empirical phenomenon of “the Haves come out ahead in commutation procedures” in China as both procedural and policy factors play increasingly important roles. Both the commutation practice and the policy of controlling three types of prisoners' commutation in China have, to some extent, challenged the universality of the Party Capability Theory, inspiring us to pay closer attention to China's judicial procedures and policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on a sample of 1098 prisoners, this study examined the influence of age, race/ethnicity, family relationships, and drug use along with legal factors on decisions about whether to grant parole to prisoners in Zhejiang Province, China. The first model showed that age and family relationships of offenders do not play as strong a role in China as in the United States, but race/ethnicity and drug use have a significant impact on parole decisions. The second model demonstrated that with the addition of legal factors, the influence of extrajudicial factors is no longer significant, while legal factors such as administrative punishment, monthly scoring assessment, surrender of ill-gotten gains or payment of compensation, risk of recidivism, crime type, fulfillment of monetary sanctions are important factors in parole decisions in China. Finally, this paper explains that the legal factors may be the key criteria upon which Chinese judicial organs make parole decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research is the first empirical study to examine ethnic minority gangs which have emerged within the Singapore prisons. It argues that the distinctive forms these entities have assumed in terms of history, structure, subculture, geography, and ideologies have to be appreciated in the context of the social, economic, and political dynamics that exist in wider Singapore society, particularly between the formal social control institutions and the institutionalized Chinese secret societies. What is sociologically revealing is that although the latter operating within the prisons tend to recruit non-Chinese inmates and is therefore more “out-group” orientated in their recruitment strategies, memberships into ethnic minority gangs such as the “Omega” and “Sarah Jumbo”—the two important minority gangs in prisons—are restricted to inmates of the same “race,” pointing to a conceptualization of gangs in prisons as a racialized phenomenon as far as the Singapore context is concerned. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study made use of delinquent subculture theories developed in the United States to examine juvenile attitudes toward the police in China. The data were collected from face-to-face interviews conducted with 358 adjudicated youth offenders incarcerated in a province-run juvenile prison in an ethnic minority autonomous region of China. The analysis includes variables derived from delinquent subcultures theories as well as traditional models commonly employed in the U.S. literature. The findings suggest that juvenile offenders in the sample tend to rate the police positively and delinquent subculture theories have their utility in explaining juvenile offenders’ sentiments toward the police. Explanations were provided for findings that are distinctive for this Chinese sample. Study limitations and relevant policy implications were discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although scholars have shown a continuing interest in probing the disciplinary nature of China's penal system, relatively few studies examine its 'collective' connotation of discipline and the effectiveness in achieving the primary target of Chinese imprisonment: rehabilitation. Drawing on interviews undertaken with 30 female parolees/ex-prisoners and 10 prison officers, this study argues that the collective discipline at selected prisons is a deepening and possible an extension of Foucauldian project. Yet, compliance and docility do not equate well rehabilitation. The findings suggest that rehabilitative interventions are implemented more for order and safety maintenance rather than eliciting deep contrition of prisoners. The rigorous political climate of increasing accountability further disrupts any ethos of rehabilitation. Officers' diligent and skilled use of control demonstrates a 'tactical agreement' that while prisoners as autonomous agents value their performances for early release, officers depend on the consent of the prisoners to get through the day. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study aimed to examine the difference in self-control strength between individuals with and without antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) in a Chinese male prisoner sample. Thirty-seven male inmates who met the criteria for DSM-IV ASPD and 38 who did not were asked to watch a four-minute silent videotape of an interview, and ignore the words displayed on screen during the videotape to deplete their ego strength. A handgrip task was conducted both before and after watching the videotape, with participants’ time squeezing the handgrip being the dependent variable. Result showed a significant interaction between group (ASPD/no-ASPD group) and time (baseline/post-manipulation measure). The post-manipulation result was significantly worse than the baseline result for the ASPD group, but not for the no-ASPD group. These results indicate that tasks that contribute to ego depletion lead to a deficit of self-control strength in prisoners with ASPD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, we investigate the relationship between Chinese female offenders’ prison adjustment and their perception of social support using both quantitative and qualitative methods. We find that social support has positive effects on female offenders’ prison adjustment and that demographic factors are not significantly related to their prison adjustment or perception of social support. Of three types of social support providers (family, friends, and significant others), offenders welcomed support from the family the most, followed by significant others (including prison officers and social volunteers). Support from friends (mainly fellow prisoners) is comparatively less important in the lives of Chinese female offenders. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Shanghai Solicitors' Association(SSA) efficiently checked and balanced the abuse of power of prison and other state powers, which revealled the function of social organizations and to certain extent exposes the features of counterbalancing-cooperation relationship. In Republic of China, solicitors were generally viewed as "gluttonous guys", which was not true to solicitors of SSA, who actually helped imprisoned criminals to protect their legal rights in the aspects such as rights protection and survival after release. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Regarded as beneficial and preferable to the clients, advice delivery has been an integral part of counseling; however, there are controversies over the suitability of giving advice in counseling services, including counseling conducted in the context of prisons. Based on conversation analysis, this article tries to explore when and how police counselors in two Chinese prisons give advice and how inmate clients respond to and seek advice in offender counseling. It is found that advice delivery, supposed to be for the inmate clients’ sake, only serves a phatic function in the context of prisons in which security is a priority, and transforming inmates into law-abiding citizen is the overall goal of prison rehabilitation and correction. Hence, offender counselors, intending to alleviate depression and anxiety in inmate clients, are caught in a dilemma. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This article compares the prison system in China and Western countries. Correctional ideology or punishment philosophy refers to a body of ideas that pertain to the treatment of offenders. In the Western correctional systems, the dominant correctional ideologies seem to be deterrence and retribution. With these ideologies, the medical model of corrections seems to be outdated. In China, there seems to be two different policy trends in the criminal justice system. In the world outside prisons, a crackdown policy toward offenders has been used since 1983. On the other hand, within the field of the prison system, the rehabilitation ideology and relevant policies have been practiced since 1949. In some Western countries, standards and scholars' views argue for a smaller prison size. In China, the concept of design capacity is not so exact and not so valued when designing a prison. Also, the classification standards of prison size are the thousand. In some Western countries, there are significant differences between categories of prison. The maximum security prison is a facility made of steel and concrete, enclosed by massive concrete walls or by a series of double or triple perimeter fences topped with barbed wire or razor ribbon.

Examines the social history of prisons in China. Sophistication in the network of prisons; Linkage between prisons reform and notions of crime, punishment, and repentance; Influence of the Confucian notion on the prisons reform.

Background: A global public health emergency triggered by the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) epidemic may have are markable psychological impact on the population. There is still limited psychological research on police officers, especially prison officers in the process of enforcing the law. The present study aims to identify prevalence and influencing factors on mental health status among frontline prison officers in China during the prevention and control of the COVID-19 epidemic., Methods: A cross-sectional survey with a sample of 981 frontline prison officers was conducted using snowball sampling approach. The self-administered questionnaire consisted of 4 parts: (i) informed consent form; (ii) socio-demographic section; (iii) work and life situations during the prevention and control of the COVID-19 epidemic; (iv) the Chinese version of the 12-item General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12). Univariate analysis and multivariable logistic regression were performed to identify factors influencing mental health status., Results: The prevalence of being prone to mental health problems (GHQ-12 score ≥ 4) was 33.43% among frontline prison officers. The results of GHQ-12 factors analysis indicated that the prison officers suffered from psychological issues was related to anxiety and depression, which main symptoms were unhappy and depressed, lost sleep over worry and constantly under strain. Multivariate logistic regression analysis revealed that male (OR = 1.573, 95% CI:1.385-1.853), lockdown shift inside the prison(OR = 2.203, 95% CI:2.139-2.297), more night shifts (OR = 2.163, 95% CI:2.031-2.317; OR = 2.749, 95% CI:2.194-2.901), more smoking (OR = 1.100, 95% CI:1.037-2.168), poor self-reported physical condition (OR = 1.947, 95% CI:1.478-2.250), chronic or serious illness history(OR = 1.870, 95% CI:1.314-2.660; OR = 2.214, 95% CI:1.460-2.812) were risk factors for mental health among frontline prison officers, while regular diet (OR = 0.779, 95% CI:0.539-0.928), more physical exercise (OR = 0.702, 95% CI:0.548-0.899; OR = 0.641, 95% CI:0.316-0.887), more communication with family members (OR = 0.437, 95% CI:0.295-0.616) were protective factors., Conclusion: Chinese frontline prison officers experienced different psychological stress coming from the prevention and control of this epidemic. Therefore, continued surveillance of psychological problems and targeted mental health care for frontline prison officers were urgent., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

Discusses the general descriptions of the prison network in the People's Republic of China (PRC), focusing on the inmates of a penal institution in post-liberation Beijing on the basis of an internal prison registry. Brutal treatment of political prisoners in the regime's penal institutions; Treatment of suspects accused of a political crime.

This article examines labor productivity in prison and detention facilities in China in the 1900s. The prison facilities and prisoners in China are of great importance to the Chinese economy. In 1998, the facilities produced over 2 billion yuan worth of goods and services. The goods produced are for both the domestic economy and for export. Many of these prisoner-made goods were exported to the U.S. in 1990. Specific types of goods sold in the U.S. include textiles, wines, teas and machinery. These camps are known as labor reform and labor re-education camps, Laogai Ying in Chinese. The goal of Laogai is to reform prisoners into new socialist men through the study of party-approved documents and self-criticism and hard labor. The Laogai population increased in the 1950s and 1960s.

This article focuses on Lau Shan-ching's experiences in Meizhou prison. Recognizing his crime and submitting to the law was the most unpleasant episode of Lau Shan-ching's ten years of prison life. Not only was the whole system of Meizhou bent on forcing him to recognize his crime, ceaselessly reminding him of his duty to look after his parents, the prison cadres worked on his parents, too. It got to the point where his parents implored him to recognize his crime every time they came to see him. Once they hinted that they'd do all they could to get his sentence reduced, and that he could always sort things out after he got out of prison. He had been inside a long time, and didn't know that there was really an active campaign in Hong Kong calling for his release. Also, when everyone around him had confessed, with him the only one holding out, Lau Shan-ching began to feel uneasy. Eventually, his will grew weaker and he started to think crazy thoughts. When the prison cadres heard that his attitude had changed, they were thrilled. This was because, in the entire history of Meizhou Prison, there had scarcely been anyone who refused to recognize his crime right through to the end of his sentence.

This article focuses on Lau Shan-ching's experiences after he was released from prison. He says that he was not an ordinary university student ten years ago. He was a romantic revolutionary. In the two years before his arrest, his revolutionary romanticism caused him to venture into China fourteen times to struggle side by side for socialist democracy with the mainland democracy movement activists in South China. Ten years ago, if he had told ordinary folks in the streets that he was working toward the democratic future of China, surely there would hardly be a sympathetic ear. But today, after the baptism of the 1989 movement, he believes that many people understand his struggle for China's democratic future. There are always pioneers in history. If it had not been him, it could have been someone else. The first time he went to the mainland to link up with the democracy movement, he was not alone. It was Ah Qing who accompanied him. Ah Qing was Lau Shan-ching's girlfriend. She went with him several times. She also was his interpreter on the trip to Beijing and Shanghai, as his ability to communicate in Putonghua was zero.

The article presents information on the rise and fall of Chinese Emperor Zheng Min. The institution of emperorhood that supreme symbol of feudal autocracy has long been relegated to the pages of China's history books. However, the great salvos of the birth of the People's Republic did not totally banish, from this vast land, with its millennia-long feudalistic tradition, so-called dreams of emperorhood. In the early spring of 1981, as the last vestiges of wintry cold were departing from Shuitou Township in Pingyang County, Zhejiang, there arrived unexpectedly in town a little old man named Li Guangchang. Owing to his considerable fluency as a speaker, however, he had risen to become the leader of his production team. During his time in prison, he failed to show repentance and, indeed, even schemed to break out and escape, and for this his sentence was increased by five years. Still, however, Li Guangehang refused to abandon his old ways. Li Guangchang was well aware that his grand scheme of founding a dynasty and achieving fame would come to naught if he relied solely on his own efforts and those of a few followers.

While prison adaptation has been studied extensively in Western societies, relatively few studies have examined incarcerated people in China. Given the differences in sociocultural and prison environments, findings from Western nations may not be generalizable to the Chinese context. Adopting the importation and deprivation models, we specifically examine how incarcerated individuals' adaptation in the form of attitudes toward imprisonment and rehabilitation is shaped by various pre- and post-incarceration factors. Using a unique dataset collected in Zhejiang, China, we demonstrate that prison adaptation is associated more with importation factors than with deprivation factors. Specifically, prison adaptation is positively associated with the province of origin, parental attachment, peer attachment, and neighborhood cohesion. Furthermore, sentence length shows an unexpected positive association with adaptation. Situated in the literature, our findings further confirm that prison adaptation is a multifaceted phenomenon and that distinctive aspects of adaptation are evidently influenced by different sets of factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]