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The ∼1.7 Ga Damiao anorthosite complex (DAC) in the North China Craton contains abundant Ti–magnetite-dominated ore deposits. Both the Fe–Ti–P-rich silicate rocks and massive Fe–Ti–(P) ores occur as discordant late-stage dikes cross-cutting early-stage anorthosites with irregular but sharp boundaries. Field and petrographic observations indicate that some late-stage dikes are composed of unique oxide–apatite gabbronorites (OAGNs), whereas others comprise well-developed alternating late-stage anorthosites and Fe–Ti–P-rich pyroxenites defining rhythmic layers. Massive Fe–Ti–(P) ores are closely related to the Fe–Ti–P-rich pyroxenites. Plagioclase and whole-rock compositions of different rock types were analyzed to constrain the late-stage magma evolution and genesis of the Fe–Ti oxide ores. The similar mineralogical assemblages, REE and HFSE patterns suggest that the different rock types formed by differentiation from a common parental magma. Early-stage anorthosites are characterized by positive Eu anomalies and low REE contents, whereas the late-stage dike-like rocks display no significant Eu anomalies and high REE contents. Plagioclase compositions in the late-stage rocks show a decrease of An contents when compared to that of the early-stage rocks. Based on field relations, petrography and well-defined linear compositional trends, the sequence of crystallization is inferred as: early-stage anorthosites + leuconorites + norites, OAGNs, late-stage anorthosites + Fe–Ti–P-rich pyroxenites + massive Fe–Ti–(P) ores, and massive Fe–Ti–(P) ores. The OAGNs which underwent relatively rapid crystallization represent an early phase during the residual magma evolution after anorthosite separation, whereas the rhythmic layers formed by slow but extensive fractional crystallization of interstitial melt. High solubility of phosphorous played an important role in the formation of rhythmic layering. Massive Fe–Ti–(P) ores crystallized and segregated directly from the magma of Fe–Ti–P-rich pyroxenites, thus representing the most evolved products of the residual magma. Progressive and extensive fractional crystallization of residual ferrobasaltic magma is probably responsible for the formation of large-scale massive Fe–Ti–(P) ores. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China has the largest global demand for iron ore resources, with more than 50% of its demand presently being met from foreign sources. Iron resources are abundant in China (ca. 80 billion tons of proven iron ores), but high-grade ores are scarce. Most iron deposits in China are low in grade, with an average grade of 30.62% TFe. The iron deposits in China are divided into six types: sedimentary–metamorphic, magmatic Fe–Ti–(V), volcanic rock-hosted, contact metasomatic–hydrothermal (mostly skarn), sedimentary, and weathering–leaching type. Sedimentary–metamorphic iron deposits, which are mainly distributed in the North China Craton, are dominated by highly metamorphosed and deformed BIF-related iron deposits. Although these ores average only 30.35% TFe, their coarse-grained magnetite is easily recovered during processing. Sedimentary–metamorphic iron deposits are the most common of the iron deposit types in China and account for approximately 56.3% of the proven ore reserves in the country. Iron skarn deposits in China occur along or near the contact zones between Mesozoic intermediate-felsic, medium- to shallow-level intrusions and carbonate country rocks. They are one of the most important suppliers of high-grade magnetite ores in China. Magmatic Fe–Ti–(V) deposits, which formed in Proterozoic basement rocks during the late Paleozoic Hercynian orogeny, are hosted by mafic–ultramafic complexes with Ti–V-rich magnetite as the major iron ore mineral. Volcanic rock-hosted iron deposits are divided into those hosted by marine and continental volcanic rocks, with magnetite as the main ore mineral in both. Marine volcanic rock-hosted iron deposits are mainly distributed in late Paleozoic rocks of the Altaishan and Tianshan Mountains in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. Continental volcanic rock-hosted iron deposits are mainly distributed in the Yanshanian (late Mesozoic) Na-rich intermediate-mafic rocks of the Ningwu and Luzong basins in the Middle–Lower Yangtze River Valley. Sedimentary-type iron deposits are dominantly hosted in Devonian clastic marine formations in southern China and in Mesoproterozoic marine strata in northern China, with hematite as main ore mineral. All of the weathering–leaching iron deposits in China are small in scale, and they have little economic value. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Fe–Ti–P mineralization evolved from a hydrous melt. • Apatite formed throughout the whole magmatic–hydrothermal history. • Hydrothermal processes were responsible for the distribution of apatite in orebodies. The Damiao Fe–Ti–P deposit offers a rare opportunity for studying late-stage Fe–Ti ore-forming processes in Proterozoic anorthosites. The orebodies are hosted in anorthosite and commonly show chlorite-dominated alteration in the contact zone on both sides, but the nature and origin of fluids in Fe-Ti-P mineralization remains contentious. Baddeleyite is a common accessory mineral in anorthosites and Fe–Ti–P orebodies, and typically occurs as blebs and lamellae in primary ilmenite reflecting decreasing solubility of Zr in ilmenite during slow cooling and consequent exsolution of ZrO 2. Two types of zircon are identified in the Fe–Ti–P orebodies and altered anorthosite at Damiao, and both are related to hydrothermal replacement of baddeleyite by Si-rich fluids. The type-I zircon shows subhedral to anhedral shapes with variable sizes (5–50 μm) in Fe–Ti–P orebodies, and coexists with magnetite–rutile symplectite formed by ilmenite breakdown. In contrast, the type-II zircon typically occurs as tiny aggregates in chlorite–quartz–titanite replacement fronts of altered anorthosite, indicative of a hydrothermal origin. The type-I zircon yielded an age of 1739 ± 16 Ma, similar to the age of baddeleyite previously reported for the orebodies. Formation of the type-I zircon is related to the replacement of baddeleyite in the presence of Si-enriched hydrothermal fluids evolved from magma. Ti-in-zircon geothermometry indicates a fluid temperature of >700 °C for the formation of the type-I zircon. However, homogenization temperature of fluid inclusions in co-precipitated apatite suggests that the type-II zircon in altered anorthosite may have formed by later hydrothermal fluids at temperature of ~350 °C. Our results indicate that the Fe–Ti–P mineralization of the Damiao anorthosite complex involved hydrous melts and magmatic–hydrothermal processes, with the Fe–Ti oxides being formed at the magmatic stage and apatite at the hydrothermal stage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mafic–ultramafic intrusions comagmatic with Proterozoic massif-type anorthosites can provide insights into the parental magma from which large volumes of hyper-feldspathic rocks are produced. Recent deep drilling has unveiled a large olivine–Ti-magnetite-rich layered intrusion (named Dawusunangou) beneath the Damiao massif-type anorthosite complex in the North China Craton. The layered intrusion is composed of alternating olivine–Ti-magnetite-rich dark layers and plagioclase-rich light layers (ca. 35–80% plagioclase), with the latter also containing pod- or lens-shaped pyroxene–Ti-magnetite-rich aggregates. This layered intrusion shows low Mg# and REE patterns similar to the overlying Damiao anorthosite complex. Baddeleyite Pb–Pb geochronology yielded indistinguishable crystallization ages of ca. 1735 Ma for both the Dawusunangou layered intrusion and the Damiao anorthosite complex, suggesting coeval emplacement. Using the average bulk compositions of the two intrusions, mass balance calculations assuming 30–40% Dawusunangou and 70–60% Damiao would give a composition similar to high-Al basaltic magma. Collectively, these features indicate that the Dawusunangou layered intrusion represents the mafic residues after the segregation of the Damiao anorthosites from high-Al basaltic parental magma. A short-lived magma chamber is thought to have supplied the two intrusions. In situ crystallization with variable nucleation rates for plagioclase combined with the mafic minerals crystallizing in equilibrium proportions resulted in the formation of repeated dark and light layers of the Dawusunangou layered intrusion. The two intrusions are interpreted to have formed by multiple magma injections, instead of continuous differentiation of one melt. The parental magma was derived from a depleted mantle source with significant crustal contribution during magma evolution. The large Nd–Hf isotopic variations suggest contamination by Paleoarchean to Neoarchean crust. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The high-grade magnetite ores related to banded iron formations (BIFs) in the Anshan-Benxi area, Liaoning Province in China, have been widely interpreted as the product of replacement of protore by epigenetic hydrothermal fluids. The high-grade iron ore reserves in the mining area II (164 million tons) in the Gongchangling (G2) and Qidashan-Wangjiabuzi (QW) iron deposits (11.45 million tons) are the largest deposits in the Anshan-Benxi area. We present a detailed comparison of the geology, geochemical and stable isotopic compositions of the iron ores in the G2 with those in the QW to constrain the role of desilicification and iron activation–reprecipitation in converting the BIFs to high-grade magnetite ores. These two deposits show marked difference in wall-rock alteration, geochemical features, and oxygen and sulfur isotopic compositions. Wall-rock alteration in the G2 is characterized by garnetization, actinolitization, and chloritization, whereas the QW shows chloritization, biotitization and sericitization. The geochemistry of altered rocks in the G2 is characterized by slight REE fractionation, positive Eu and no significant Ce anomalies, whereas the QW is characterized by high ΣREE contents, strong REE fractionation, and the absence of significant Eu and Ce anomalies. High-grade iron ores in the G2 show similar δ 18 O V-SMOW values for magnetite, lower δ 18 O V-SMOW values for quartz and higher δ 34 S V-CDT values for pyrite when compared to the BIFs, whereas the QW shows lower δ 18 O V-SMOW values for magnetite, similar δ 18 O V-SMOW values for quartz and similar δ 34 S V-CDT values for pyrite. These features indicate that desilicification process by hypogene alkaline-rich hydrothermal fluids were possibly responsible for the formation of high-grade iron ores in the G2 whereas iron activation–reprecipitation process by migmatitic-hydrothermal fluids generated the high-grade iron orebodies in QW. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Volcanic rock-hosted iron deposits are among the important iron ores in China. However, the nature of primary magma and petrogenesis associated with these iron ores remains controversial. Here, we report iron-rich fragments (IRF) from the Yamansu iron deposit in Eastern Tianshan Mountains, NW China, which occurs in association with volcanic breccia, submarine volcanic breccia and ignimbrite. The IRF is composed of five types including oligoclase-iron oxide type (OIO), oligoclase-albite-iron oxide type (OAIO), albite-iron oxide type (AIO), albite-K-feldspar-iron oxide type (AKIO) and K-feldspar-iron oxide type (KIO). These fragments display typical volcanic fabric features, such as porphyritic texture, hyalopilitic texture of the groundmass and vesicles filled by minerals to form amygdales. The feldspar phenocrysts of IRF are dominantly albite. The groundmass of IRF consists of magnetite and feldspar. The magnetite is distributed in between the feldspar laths, and together display hyalopilitic texture which could be observed only in volcanic rocks. The vesicles are filled with magnetite, feldspar, chlorite and calcite from the margin to the interior. The IRF has high Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Ti, Na and K contents and low Mg content. The average total Fe is 26 wt.%. The magnetite is mostly titanium–vanadium magnetite, with the TiO 2 content ranging up to 4.86 wt.% and V 2 O 3 content up to 3.20 wt.%. The IRF probably came from iron-rich melts and represent the products of the Fenner magma evolution. The basaltic magma evolved into the Fe–Na-rich residual melts by crystallization under low oxygen fugacity condition in a closed magma chamber after intruding into the shallow crust. The Fe–Na-rich residual melts were emplaced in hypabyssal environments or erupted generating the orebodies or providing the material source for the generation of the high-grade iron ores which were subsequently enriched by the late-stage hydrothermal fluids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]