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Research on young English language learners has been gaining popularity in recent years, but to this day remains underdeveloped. The present study aimed to add to this body of research by exploring the effects of visual arts activities implemented via comprehension and compared to more commonly used flashcard activities implemented via comprehension-based instruction on young English language learners' vocabulary acquisition and retention. The study specifically focused on very young learners who do not have access to the English language outside of the classroom. This study employed a withinsubjects counterbalanced design with young English language learners (N = 47) with a mean age of three years and eight months. The results provided evidence that both instruction types are highly effective in the productive and receptive learning of vocabulary among young English language learners. Furthermore, the positive effects of visual arts activities implemented via comprehension-based instruction on vocabulary retention were found to be significantly higher than those of the production-based instruction.

This study investigates a virtual reality (VR) cross-cultural interactive learning environment that combines a 360-degree video camera for content creation, a viewing tool, and a video conference platform for real-time interaction. This environment aims to address the limitations of traditional 360-degree VR tools, particularly in enabling simultaneous, interactive engagement among multiple users. The study recruited 31 university students from China and Indonesia utilizing convenience sampling to test the efficacy of the environment in fostering cognitive development and challenging cross-cultural stereotypes. The methodology included analysing student-created content, questionnaire responses, and insights from semistructured interviews. The analysis, grounded in a cognitive development taxonomy and an assessment of stereotype changes, revealed that the students reached the "remember" and "understand" cognitive levels. Additionally, prevalent stereotypes held by the students were addressed. The immersive nature of the VR environment and the interactions with foreign peers were highly appreciated, significantly contributing to cognitive growth and stereotype mitigation. These findings offer valuable insights for educators and researchers in technology-assisted cross-cultural education, emphasizing the importance of designing interactive VR-based activities that effectively facilitate cognitive development and address cross-cultural stereotypes.

Cosmopolitanism and nationalism are often presented in binary terms, as standing in opposition to each other, especially with regards to education. In this paper, we establish a framework for studying education policy today through the lens of a concept we have developed: 'cosmopolitan nationalism'. Many education systems around the world are grappling with and simultaneously integrating both cosmopolitan and nationalist elements in policy objectives, curricular content and pedagogic approaches. Through an in-depth analysis of three country examples -- China, the US and Israel -- we outline four different manifestations of education policy that can be explained by employing the analytical lens of cosmopolitan nationalism: (i) the increasing prominence and visibility of the International Baccalaureate within these three public education systems; (ii) reforms of specific curricula elements and pedagogies legitimised with reference to approaches assessed as globally leading through international assessments; (iii) efforts to promote national education systems as international beacons of best practice; (iv) creation of alternative education provisions that are promoted globally for very specific purposes and populations. We argue that, given our heterogeneous sample of case study countries, and careful analysis of these, a cosmopolitan nationalism lens offers important insights into education policy-making today which has the potential to be applied in other contexts.

In this study, we investigated media reports and literacy research in four nations--China, Morocco, the Republic of (South) Korea, and the United States--about the relationship between adolescents' literacy and use of digital media, or digital literacy. We present short "snapshots" of adolescents' digital literacy in each country and then compare these to findings in a report about adolescent literacy and uses of digital media published by the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA). Our analysis indicates significant variation across countries in both literate traditions and adolescents' access to digital media, and notes that these interact to create unique conditions for adolescents' digital literacy in each country, even as, across the four nations, adolescents' capacity to innovate and solve problems with digital access seems constant. In conclusion, we are cautious about making global claims about the state of adolescents' literacy worldwide but point to important findings about how the use of the internet in schools seems to have a positive impact on reading performance and offer some implications for classroom practice.

Multiple evidence-based practices (EBPs) were identified in education, but relatively little attention has been paid to implementation. Special education teachers in the Chinese mainland faced great challenges in terms of a lack of knowledge and skills regarding EBPs. Asynchronous online training has been successfully provided for pre-service professionals on instructional methods or strategies. The present study evaluated the effects of self-paced online training on pre-service special education teachers' case application of visual schedules to support individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities. A pre/post-test control group design was utilized. Seventy-seven undergraduate students (mean age 20.5 years) who majored in special education participated in this study. Results indicated that the self-paced online training was effective in improving pre-service special education teachers' case application of the visual schedules strategy. In addition, participants were in agreement on the social acceptability of the online module of visual schedules. The results are discussed from a perspective of effective and socially valid online training, along with limitations and future implications.

Adolescence is a critical period during which youth develop and shape their behaviors. Because differences between youths are strongly connected to environmental factors, we aimed to elucidate possible pathways from home-school regulation and atmosphere to youths' prosocial and antisocial behaviors. Data were derived from the China Education Panel Survey. This study involved a total of 9291 students aged 14-15 years (4834 boys, 4457 girls). We used structural equation modeling (SEM) with LISREL 8.80 and Monte Carlo resampling with R to conduct the analysis strategy. In the home-school regulation, parental supervision on the one hand and teacher criticism on the other hand have direct positive and negative predictive effects on youths' prosocial behaviors, respectively, while their direct effects on antisocial behavior are the opposite; teachers praise does not directly affect adolescents' prosocial and antisocial behaviors. In the home-school atmosphere, family interaction and perceived good class climate directly positively affect youths' prosocial behaviors, while the direct effects of both on antisocial behavior are not significant. The SEM results reveal that academic self-efficacy and depressive symptoms may be underlying mediating mechanisms through which home-school regulation and atmosphere during adolescence affect students' prosocial and antisocial behaviors. Intervention programs targeting home-school supportive environments and prevention programs targeting positive emotion and self-awareness may yield benefits for proper social behavior in adolescents. For example, by enhancing the way and frequency of parent-child interaction, teachers and students jointly create a good class climate of care and friendship to strengthen a home-school supportive environment. Improve adolescents' positive emotions such as contentment, optimism, and hope to reduce the possibility of depression.

This article provides a review of previous studies that have examined the effects of orthography on establishing contrastive phonological representations in second language acquisition and presents results from an original study on Mandarin speakers' production of English stops investigating how the presence of orthography affects the production of phonological categories that involve allophony. English voiceless stops are canonically represented as aspirated [p[superscript h], t[superscript h], k[superscript h]] in word-initial/stressed onset positions but are realized as unaspirated [p, t, k] following /s/ and in unstressed, non-initial onset positions. The results of our imitation experiment showed that Mandarin speakers failed to correctly imitate the unaspirated allophones when presented with written input, and this orthographic effect was stronger with nonwords than with real words. These results are best explained by an orthography effect mediated by phonological awareness and prior linguistic experience.

Blended classroom assessment (CA) has become commonplace in the post-pandemic era, offering advantages but also presenting challenges for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers. These challenges can impact teachers' emotional experiences, distinct from face-to-face or purely online environments. However, scant research exists on how EFL teachers employ emotion regulation (ER) strategies in blended CA within EFL contexts. This qualitative study examines how eight EFL teachers at a university in southwestern China employed ER strategies in blended CA. Drawing on Gross's ER theory, the study identifies ten intrinsic and extrinsic ER strategies, either antecedent-focused or response-focused, utilized by EFL teachers. These strategies helped teachers maintain resilience amidst challenges posed by blended CA, including low completion rates of online learning tasks prior to face-to-face instruction, interaction in blended CA, blended assessment design, managing the workload of blending online and face-to-face assessment, and addressing issues of plagiarism and cheating. The study enriches our understanding of EFL teachers' emotions in blended CA and underscores the significance of ER competence in assessment literacy. Implications for equipping teachers with strategies to enhance their emotional well-being and resilience in blended CA are also discussed.

The COVID-19 pandemic prompts a number of university students to engage in online learning. China is one of the countries that has experienced a radical shift in this sense. Before the pandemic, the online mode of university study was not recognised as a legitimate educational experience in China; thus, a small number of Chinese students engaged in online learning. Subsequently, there was a relatively incomplete understanding of their online learning experiences. Given the exponential expansion of online learning in China since the pandemic, it would be a timely effort to synthesise knowledge on online Chinese students' experiences. For that purpose, the present article presents the results of a systematic literature review of 34 published journal articles concerning Chinese students' online learning journey. The results give a deep insight into Chinese distance higher education from students' perspectives and call for more studies on the implications of relevant policy and cultural dimensions on Chinese students' online learning experiences.

While ChatGPT has recently become very popular, AI has a long history and philosophy. This paper intends to explore the promises and pitfalls of the Generative Pre-trained Transformer (GPT) AI and potentially future technologies by adopting a speculative methodology. Speculative future narratives with a specific focus on educational contexts are provided in an attempt to identify emerging themes and discuss their implications for education in the 21st century. Affordances of (using) AI in Education (AIEd) and possible adverse effects are identified and discussed which emerge from the narratives. It is argued that now is the best of times to define human vs AI contribution to education because AI can accomplish more and more educational activities that used to be the prerogative of human educators. Therefore, it is imperative to rethink the respective roles of technology and human educators in education with a future-oriented mindset.

Drawing from a larger CIPP program evaluation ("Context, Input, Processes, Products") comprised of 11 analyses of the ETS online teacher training course titled "Teaching Academic English with the TOEFL iBT® Test" (TAE), this paper triangulates three qualitatively different data sets and seeks to understand how participants responded to the TAE course. The research team considered self-reported data (closed- and open-answer survey questions), engagement data, and learning data. The self-reported data were strongly positive and illustrated the value participants reported having about the course content, especially ETS-created materials. Some gaps were indicated: calls were made for more materials--especially additional resources participants could use when teaching--and for increased interactions during the course workshop. In partial juxtaposition, the engagement data indicated that participants were engaging the course less than anticipated. The learning data simultaneously indicated that some assessments were quite easy for participants while elsewhere participants did not have the desired uptake of some topics. Viewing the three data sets together, the research team arrived at a more nuanced conclusion: despite participant satisfaction, development processes should continue, to ensure the highest quality teacher training program possible, in terms of its content, resources, and interactions.

Educators have long questioned why some students can experience achievement more easily in some school subjects/curriculum, but not in others. We argue that learners cannot ignore navigating two key features inherent within every curriculum--its cognitive demands as well as its opportunities for access to knowledge that are the twin foci of this study. We adopt Specialisation codes from Legitimation Code Theory to examine the epistemic and social relations of intended learning outcomes from secondary science- and arts-based curricula in mainland China. The results showed that science curricula coded predominately with knowledge codes, but the latter possessed mainly elite codes. Compared to science, the Chinese arts curriculum is therefore more challenging for learners because achievement here is largely dependent on possession of specific attributes, dispositions, or qualities that can potentially restrict access. Implications for improving teaching and learning in these two types of curriculum in this region are discussed.

Psychological variables remain a much under-investigated sub-category of individual differences (IDs) compared with cognitive ones. The present paper aims to gain a better understanding of the psychological effects of bilingualism by investigating national identity (NI), a socio-psychological construct, based on big data, that has rarely been examined. Drawing upon the 2015 Chinese Social Survey (CSS), which utilised a nationally representative sample (N = 10242), we employed a 'more refined' version of hierarchical regression analysis on the influence of foreign-language (FL)-based bilingualism and other sociobiographical variables on NI. Out of the 18 initial independent variables, satisfaction with life (1.7%-2.2%) and age (1.2%-1.4%) emerged as important predictors for NI as their minimum effect size value ([delta]R[superscript 2], see the range in brackets) exceeded the 'typical' benchmark (1%); in contrast, the influence respectively from FL mastery (0.006%-0.040%) and FL use (0.000%-0.004%) was negligible. In other words, our key finding is that a person's FL-based bilingualism had little to do with his/her NI. Implications for China's plan to reform FL (e.g. English) learning are discussed, and future research directions are also proposed.

Although research conducted worldwide has pinpointed the importance of the cultivation of worldviews in citizenship education, little is known of how worldviews are constructed in the civics curriculum. In this study, we adopted a comparative historical approach to examine how China's civics curriculum has interpreted the meaning of life for young citizens during the transformation of the country from an empire into a nation-state. The data were drawn from 210 school textbooks published between 1902 and 2020. Four historical periods were delineated: the late Qing and Republican era, the Maoist era, the Deng Xiaoping era, and the current Xi Jinping administration. The findings demonstrated the trends and changes that took place while the ideal of citizenship and citizenship education took root, driving the modernisation of Chinese society. Through this study, we contribute to the theoretical discussions on enriching civics curriculum development from a humanist perspective.

This study used an idiodynamic method to investigate fluctuations in the level of willingness to communicate in a second language (L2 WTC) in an online class. Seven EFL university students took part in four online class sessions (each lasting 20 min). They rated their L2 WTC after each session while watching a video recording of their performance. Following that, stimulated recalls and semi-structured interviews were used to identify factors influencing moment-to-moment changes in their L2 WTC. The findings indicate that EFL learners' levels of L2 WTC are highly dynamic as a result of the combined influences of various trait-like (e.g. openness to a new online learning experience) and state-like factors (e.g. technical issues) factors during their participation in an online class. In practice, these findings indicate that L2 teachers can continue to play an important role in increasing students' active participation in an online classroom by creating a positive learning environment through affective, technical, and pedagogical supports. This study demonstrates, methodologically, that an idiodynamic method is a useful analytical approach for comprehending the fluid and dynamic nature of L2 WTC in an online classroom--an emerging L2 learning environment.

This study aims to investigate whether VR-assisted language learning facilitates EFL learners' vocabulary learning and memory retention. One hundred seventy-seven Chinese undergraduate EFL learners were divided into VRG (VR-assisted instruction group) and CIG (conventional instruction group). Participants in the VRG (n = 75) were provided with immersive VR devices, whereas the others (n = 102) learned in conventional classrooms with instructors. The results illustrate that the spatial design of virtual environments may be related to lexical memory performance. Target words that are placed in positions where they are interacted with more frequently tend to perform better in terms of being memorized. It also suggests that words corresponding to items placed between 60180 cm of the ground are better retained. Subsequent interviews revealed that VR technology helps learners encode information based on spatial location. The VR technology's visual, aural, and textual stimulation also help learners subconsciously remember the vocabulary items.

Generative artificial intelligence (AI) has the potential to revolutionize teaching and learning applications. This article examines the word cloud, a toolkit often used to scaffold teaching and learning for reflection, critical thinking, and content learning. Addressing the issues in traditional word clouds, semantic word clouds have been developed but they are technically challenging to develop and still problematic. However, generative AI has the potential to develop efficient, accurate, creative, and accessible word clouds. Three different methods representing three major approaches of word cloud generation were developed, implemented, and user evaluated--traditional (baseline), semantic (natural language processing enhanced), and generative AI (generative pretrained transformer based)--in two different language contexts--Chinese (China case) and English (Singapore case). The findings of the study show the technical robustness of the methods, as well as provide key pedagogical insights from the user perspective of instructors of higher education courses in China and Singapore. Implications to the design of word clouds and their application in teaching and learning are discussed.

Drawing on a general distinction underlying theoretical and practical-focused pedagogies, this study examines the nexus among entrepreneurship pedagogy, entrepreneurial intention, and opportunity discovery and exploitation of an entrepreneurial process. Data was obtained from nascent student entrepreneurs (n = 462) enrolled in Chinese universities or their recent graduates. Path analysis results reveal that practical-focused pedagogy contributes more to the entrepreneurial process than theoretical-focused pedagogy. Scrutinising entrepreneurship pedagogy respectively, theoretical-focused pedagogy has a more significant impact on opportunity exploitation; in contrast, practical-focused pedagogy is more influential for opportunity discovery. Results also demonstrate that entrepreneurial intention partially mediates the paths from engaging in practical-focused pedagogy and opportunity discovery and exploitation processes. Contrary to the hypothesis, a similar mediating role for the paths of theoretical-focused pedagogy is not identified. This research sheds light on the more nuanced effectiveness of entrepreneurship programmes on students' learning and the entrepreneurial processes by disentangling the heterogeneous nature of entrepreneurship pedagogy. It implies that opportunity recognition and exploitation are dependent upon knowledge and learning asymmetries resulting from the disparity of entrepreneurship pedagogies. Our findings suggest that the relationship between theoretical and practical pedagogies is of a reciprocal nature in yielding effective learning outcomes, calling for integration in teaching practice.

The COVID-19 pandemic has suspended physical classes and influenced students from underprivileged groups more seriously due to their poor living conditions and digital disadvantages. To understand the impact of the constrained learning, we conducted a study on game-based learning to examine the effectiveness of computer-aided and autonomous learning of traditional Chinese by underprivileged students. From December 2020 to May 2021, we collected 3245 quiz results from 26 underprivileged students over six months. The quizzes systematically covered the fundamentals of learning traditional Chinese in six aspects, i.e., literacy, orthography, phonology, morphology, speaking, and writing. We analyzed the results to understand the learning efficacy of students. Remarkably, students can significantly improve their skills in literacy and phonology through unsupervised game-based learning. Furthermore, by parsing the writing tasks, we observe substantial improvements among 7 out of 13 common types of writing mistakes. Our study provides a critical lens to understand the design opportunities of game-based learning without direct supervision.

This qualitative study explored the perceptions of EFL students at a Chinese university regarding collocation learning. The participating students were provided with a collocation instruction and practice component over ten weeks within a regular one-semester EFL course. The participants were 15 Chinese first-year non-English major students. The data consisted of semi-structured interviews conducted after the students had completed the intervention component (week 12). Analysis of the transcripts of audio-recorded interviews revealed that the students showed a generally positive attitude towards learning collocations. Also, the collocation component helped the participants raise their awareness of learning collocations, become less dependent on their first language in interpreting and using collocations, and highly value the importance of collocations in writing and translation. The students also expressed some concerns in learning and using collocations. Pedagogical implications are discussed.

Background: Social factors play an important role in adolescents' behaviors. This study aims to understand percentages of health risk behaviors across country in Europe, North America, and China; explore the associations between friendly school and family contexts and involvement for several health risk behaviors among adolescents. Methods: Data derived from health behavior in school-aged children cross-sectional surveys and China Education Panel Survey in 2014-2015. Hierarchical generalized linear modeling was used to analyze data. Results: The highest percentages of health risk behaviors including unhealthy diet, smoking or alcohol, screen-based sedentary behaviors, and violent behaviors across country ranged from 28.62% to 65.24%. National classmate friendliness was negatively associated with 5 out of 9 health risk behaviors prevalence rates in 41 countries (p < 0.05). Adolescents' perceived peer friendly and helpful were common protective factor for engaging in several health risk behaviors (p < 0.01). Individual family contexts were associated with 3 types of health risk behaviors involvement (p < 0.001). School health policy implications: Health risk behaviors among adolescents reducing was associated with the implementation of friendly school and family contexts, emphasizing the significance of the goals of embedding friendly adolescents, along with the home-school collaboration. Conclusions: Public health strategies should promote national climate of friendship and individual perceived friendly school contexts to reduce health risk behaviors.

Collaborative learning (CL) is widely used in higher education around the world because it is associated with increases in students' knowledge and social skills. Low student engagement in CL activities has been identified as a common issue, while there is no CL-specific engagement scale to measure and understand engagement in such settings. Additionally, although western countries have been investigating student engagement since the 1950s, there have been comparatively few studies of this important construct in China. To address these imbalances, the present paper adopted a mixed methods approach to developing and validating a Chinese CL engagement scale. In the quantitative study, Chinese university students (N = 405) completed an anonymous online survey to assess their engagement in CL activities. Results from exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses supported a hierarchical (second-order) three-factor model of student engagement (behavioural, cognitive and emotional engagement), consistent with the tripartite conception of student engagement in Western countries. Participants were further divided into three unique groups based on engagement scores, and in the qualitative study, 12 participants from three groups were interviewed about CL experiences. Interviews served to further validate the quantitative results. The significance, limitations, and implications of these findings are discussed.

Academic cheating is a pervasive problem in many universities globally. The present double-blind randomized controlled field experiment tested whether reminding university students about academic dishonesty sanction policies would reduce their cheating in an actual exam. Students were assigned to either a Sanction Reminder or a No Reminder condition. Results showed a significant condition effect: Fewer students in the Sanction Reminder condition cheated than in the No Reminder condition; among those who cheated, males and females did not differ in their extent of cheating in the No Reminder condition but in the Reminder condition, male students cheated to a lesser extent than females. These findings suggest that sanction reminder, a widely used academic integrity practice, may indeed have its utility to promote academic honesty in exams. Further, they suggest that to reduce cheating on exams, one does not need to use methods that are overtly explicit and elaborate. A brief, subtle, and simple reminder would suffice. Our research also illustrates the importance of conducting well-controlled field behavioral research to evaluate the effectiveness of commonly implemented educational practices to ascertain that they indeed serve their designed pedagogical purposes to promote optimal learning.

The calibration of test materials generally involves the interaction between empirical analysis and expert judgement. This paper explores the extent to which scale familiarity might affect expert judgement as a component of test validation in the calibration process. It forms part of a larger study that investigates the alignment of the LanguageCert suite of tests, Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR), the China Standards of English (CSE) and China's College English Test (CET). In the larger study, Year 1 students at a prestigious university in China were administered two tests--one with items based on China's College English Test (CET), and the other a CEFR-aligned test developed by LanguageCert--the LanguageCert Test of English (LTE). Comparable sections of the CET and the LTE involved sets of discrete items targeting lexico-grammatical competence. In order to ascertain whether expert judges were equally comfortable placing test items on either scale (CET or CEFR), a group of professors from the university in China who set the CET-based test, were asked to expert judge the CET items against the nine CSE levels with which they were very familiar. They were then asked to judge the LTE items against the six CEFR levels, with which they were less familiar. Both sets of expert ratings and the test taker responses on both tests were then calibrated within a single frame of reference and located on the LanguageCert scale. In the analysis of the expert ratings, the CSE-familiar raters exhibited higher levels of agreement with the empirically-derived score levels for the CET items than they did with the equivalent LTE items. This supports the proposition that expert judgement may be used in the calibration process where the experts in question have a strong knowledge of both the test material and the standards against which the test material is to be judged.

Collaborative learning in online contexts is emotionally challenging for language learners. To achieve successful learning outcomes, language learners need to regulate their emotions and sustain positive emotions during the collaborative learning process. This study investigated language learners' emotion regulation and enjoyment, the most extensively researched positive emotion in foreign language learning, in an online collaborative English learning environment. In the study, we collected data by surveying 336 Chinese students majoring in English who collaboratively completed a series of English language writing tasks in 108 online groups facilitated by a social media app (WeChat). Principal component analysis revealed two primary types of emotion regulation: peer regulation and group regulation. The analysis also revealed one factor underpinning enjoyment: enjoyment of online collaboration. Correlation analysis showed medium and positive relationships between peer regulation, group regulation, and enjoyment of online collaboration. Structural equation modeling analysis further found that group regulation exerted a medium-sized direct effect on enjoyment of online collaboration. Peer regulation affected enjoyment of online collaboration moderately and indirectly via group regulation. The theoretical and pedagogical implications of the findings can help to optimize face-to-face and online collaborative language learning activities.

The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore the experiences of China recruiters during the pandemic, particularly with their job stress and sense of job security. The study also explored the new norms of Chinese students' recruitment following the post-pandemic crisis. Using qualitative analysis, we found that China recruiters experienced different stressors during the pandemic regardless of their working location. The participants recognized the importance of communication and seeking institutional support to help overcome their stress during the pandemic. They suggested that higher education administrators should be sensitive to the needs of their international recruiters. The participants also suggested several new norms for future recruitment, such as using the hybrid recruitment model, promoting university collaboration, initiating joint programs between US and Chinese institutions, and hiring domestic recruiters. Implications for practice are discussed. [Note: The page range (104-120) shown on the PDF is incorrect. The correct page range is 104-121.]

This study reports Chinese and Korean university EFL students' perceptions of and attitudes toward online and face-to-face English language learning modes during COVID-19. Few previous studies have focused on how students thought of online and face-to-face learning experiences of subjects regarding new concept learning and delivery of new contents. Research gravitating around English courses showed students' mixed perceptions. The survey was conducted for 302 Korean and 337 Chinese university students who took communication-oriented English courses. Descriptive statistics and qualitative data analysis were used for analysis. Results indicated that students preferred face-to-face English learning with some specific indications of achieving a stronger help and quality for communicative competence in language. Online learning also benefited students with a sense of both flexibility and independence. Positive components of face-to-face learning for language education might be considered for online education while incorporation features such as flexibility and independence to enrich language education during COVID-19.

In recent years, mobile applications (apps) have been increasingly used and investigated as a vocabulary learning approach. Despite the extensive use of commercial English as a Foreign Language (EFL) vocabulary learning apps in China, there is a lack of a review of these apps for a systematic understanding of the components and usefulness of app-assisted vocabulary learning. To fill this knowledge gap, this study presents a systematic review of 15 EFL vocabulary learning apps that were most downloaded in China, focusing on how these apps help students develop word knowledge. The results of this study showed that most apps enabled students to access word knowledge through translating words into their native language. Notably, word knowledge was usually presented through text-plus-image and text-plus-image-plus-audio. Most of these mobile apps provided sentence examples as vocabulary learning materials. Many of these apps were integrated with game elements, especially in interactivity or feedback systems and reward systems. Based on the review results, we have provided three recommendations to vocabulary learning app developers concerning the use of video for the input of word knowledge, the efficiency of vocabulary learning, and the integration of more game elements.

This study aimed to develop a model illustrating how teacher leadership contributes to student learning in higher education settings in the Eastern world. Specifically, the current study examined the relationship between teacher leadership style, classroom climate, student self-efficacy, and academic motivation. Four hundred and forty-six randomly selected undergraduate students from four medical universities in China participated in this study. PLS-SEM analyses revealed that teacher leadership style had a significant and positive effect on academic motivation. Findings also showed that classroom climate and student self-efficacy significantly mediated the association between teacher leadership style and academic motivation. Apart from contributing to the theoretical understanding of how teacher leadership impacts student learning, this research provides insightful references for medical teachers, policymakers, and stakeholders.

This study examined the extent to which L2 writers with varied working memory display differential pausing and revision behaviors at different periods during writing. The participants were 30 advanced Chinese L2 users of English, who wrote an argumentative essay. While composing, participants' keystrokes and eye-gaze movements were recorded to capture their pausing, revision, and eye-gaze behaviors. The working memory battery included tests of phonological and visual short-term memory and executive functions. We divided the writing process into five equal periods. The results revealed that participants' pausing and revision patterns were consistent with previous findings that planning, linguistic encoding, and monitoring processes dominate the initial, middle, and later composing periods, respectively. Various working memory components had differential effects on pausing depending on period, largely reflecting the predictions of Kellogg's (1996, 2001) model. However, we identified no differences in the temporal distribution of revision behaviors contingent on working memory.

As collaborative transnational education models are increasing in number globally, this study provides a snapshot of motivations for newly enrolled students at microcampuses in China, Cambodia, Jordan, and Indonesia. This research centers on the influence of country choice for students. We apply Nye's (1990, 2004) concept of soft power on student motivations and conduct quantitative analysis to trace enrollment influences. Mainly, in this case we find that U.S. soft power potentially influences students abroad to enroll in dual-degree programs. Other motivations related to cost and U.S. culture are apparent influences. Furthermore, findings provide greater insights into emerging trends in international student mobility. Our study also identifies strategies to sustain transnational education ventures in the face of challenges. Implications of this research are especially of use to university stakeholders, faculty leaders and policymakers who are working to advance U.S education on an international platform.

In response to the COVID-19 epidemic, many education systems have relied on distance learning and educational technologies to an unprecedented degree. However, rigorous empirical research on the impacts on learning under these conditions is still scarce. We present the first large-scale, quantitative evidence detailing how school closures affected education in China. The data set includes households and teachers of 4,360 rural and urban primary school students. We find that although the majority of students engaged in distance education, many households encountered difficulties including barriers to learning (such as access to appropriate digital devices and study spaces), curricular delays, and costs to parents equivalent to between 3.5 and 6 months of income. We also find significant disparities across rural and urban households.

Under current test-driven educational accountability policies, there has been a debate about school effectiveness. As conventionally measured by test scores in academic subjects, school effectiveness is often limited and potentially biased. With increasing emphasis on preparing students with both cognitive and noncognitive competencies, educational leaders demand "whole child" approaches for schooling. This study examines whether and how different types of school climate in Eastern versus Western school systems affect whole child development. It applies multivariate multilevel models of school effects using the PISA 2015 datasets from B-S-J-G (China), Korea, Finland, and the U.S., which vary in science achievement and life satisfaction. The study results show cross-national differences in these relationships between Eastern and Western school systems. It sheds new light on the need to balance academic and emotional learning goals and develop a whole school climate with culturally appropriate mixes of both "high expectations/discipline" and "high caring/support" toward whole child development.

In Mainland China, the sports training process of most players is highly homogenized, the convergence of which makes them ineffectively be identified with their individual and specific profile and difficult for them to play the sports according to their strengths and characteristics. Moreover, existing sports training software does not differentiate between player types to provide customized persona. Therefore, efficient and personalized methods need to be provided to guide players towards more autonomous sports training. Current research shows that gamification design in the process of sports training can transform players' unique conscious behaviors into habits, thus increasing their autonomy. However, the current gamification design in sports training is only based on uniform gamification elements and does not take into account the player's motivation and gamification experience, which is one of the main reasons for the homogenization of sports training. Therefore, this study aimed to identify factors that contribute to the design of gamification systems in the field of sports training, as well as to determine the relationship between players' gamification experiences during sport. It will help the researchers to explore in depth the possibilities of learning environments for youth basketball training with the development of gamified experiences. This design-driven study performed both offline and online questionnaire research (N = 198), which was analyzed with the method of a 7-point Likert scale as well as the assistance of SPSS, identified potential for the establishment of a framework for analysing preferences for gamification design elements in the context of basketball training for young players. Based on the results, this paper finds that there is a correlation between immersion and achievement in gamification experiences and proposes a framework for gamification system design in the field of sports training and offers insight that may enable the development of gamification designs that can motivate players.

This paper examines undergraduate students' perceptions of when and how active learning and engagement were supported by group-based collaborative learning. Collaborative learning is a prevalent constructivist approach that has been promoted for its capability of assisting students' shared knowledge construction. Existing research has, nonetheless, pointed towards social-cultural barriers to students' participation in collaborative learning, particularly in Eastern societies. This study explored students' perceptions of collaborative learning in group tasks during a 12-week course. Interviews revealed key themes regarding students' perspectives on what effective and meaningful collaborative work in classrooms meant to them, and how and why collaborative work motivated and engaged them. Survey findings, which helped to triangulate interview findings, showed that students' experiences of collaborative learning were supported by key elements of constructivist learning environments. Implications are derived for effective pedagogical design and theorization of collaborative learning in higher education.

Academic cheating is common, but little is known about its early emergence. It was examined among Chinese second to sixth graders (N = 2094; 53% boys, collected between 2018 and 2019) using a machine learning approach. Overall, 25.74% reported having cheated, which was predicted by the best machine learning algorithm (Random Forest) at a mean accuracy of 81.43%. Cheating was most strongly predicted by children's beliefs about the acceptability of cheating and the observed prevalence and frequency of peer cheating at school. These findings provide important insights about the early development of academic cheating, and how to promote academic integrity and limit cheating before it becomes entrenched. The present research demonstrates that machine learning can be effectively used to analyze developmental data.

Employing a qualitative case study approach and informed by an ecological perspective, this study explores two veteran language teachers' mindfulness and how their mindfulness influences their professional practice and continuing development. The findings show five critical dimensions of teacher mindfulness regarding self, teaching and learning, professional development, the situated environment, as well as time and change. Surrounding the mindfulness about self, all the dimensions constantly interact with one another in (re)shaping teaching and teacher development. The study argues for an explicit focus on mindfulness in teacher education to help teachers cultivate their mindful awareness and practice to promote their own wellbeing and student learning.

While much research is geared towards helping learners to think critically in language classrooms, scant attention has been paid to how language teachers learn to teach critical thinking (CT). To fill the gap, the present one-year qualitative case study investigated three EFL teachers' learning experiences in teaching CT in China. The findings revealed that the teachers kept enhancing their professional knowledge and skills in teaching CT through experimenting, reflecting, reading, interacting with others, and participating in formal training. As teacher learning went on, they learned to take into consideration the social, cultural, and educational realities in China and taught CT mainly through a focus on explicit instruction and inquiry-based learning. Implications are provided to prepare and support teachers to teach CT in similar contexts.

Given the impact of the global COVID-19 pandemic on children's schooling and learning, evidence for interventions implemented by parents is urgently needed. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of a parent-mediated LEGO intervention on the social interactions of four children on the autism spectrum in China. The intervention involved four sets of two parents engaging with their child in collaborative LEGO construction, with each person assigned a role as Engineer, Supplier, or Builder. Using a multiple probe design across the four family triads, the intervention effectively increased spontaneous social initiations and responses in all four children, and these behaviors were maintained for 6 weeks following the intervention. The effect on inappropriate interactions was not detected; parental prompts increased in initial intervention sessions but decreased over time. Parents implemented the intervention at home with high fidelity. Efficacy of the intervention and potential benefits of virtual parent training are discussed.

This longitudinal study examines the use of a mandatory learning module in an initial teacher education (ITE) programme that aims to develop the practical knowledge of pre-service teachers (PSTs) in a Chinese Normal university. Guided by formative interventions, data were collected from videotaped discussion meetings, teaching activities, and reflective journals of PSTs. The data were then analysed from the theoretical perspectives of expansive learning and the components of teachers' practical knowledge. The results identified the intervention trajectory as three consecutive cycles and the intervention outcomes as different development trends among knowledge components in PSTs' practical knowledge. This study contributes to the methodology of formative intervention and its empirical utility, and therefore has global implications for ITE transformation by regarding teacher practical knowledge as a complex knowledge system with evolutionary dynamics.

This study demonstrates ways that geopolitics may interfere with the pursuit of global science. In particular, the study sought to understand the impact of the U.S. Department of Justice's China Initiative on the U.S. scientific community, especially among those of Chinese and other Asian descent. Based on a survey of about 2,000 scientists in top U.S. research universities, findings show a consistent pattern of neo-racism, neo-nationalism, and the consequences for future international collaborations and maintaining highly skilled talent. The findings show how neo-racism and neo-nationalism may be sabotaging the efforts of the U.S. to be globally competitive.

This study investigates the use of an assistive humanoid robot for teaching to and learning among young children in an informal learning environment. The robot is called NAO and built by SoftBank Robotics. NAO was used to teach a mathematic concept of measurement to young children. They engaged with the robot through the teaching and learning of presentation slides, worksheets, and playing cards. Their interactions with the robot formed the evidence of their learning. The children also played with the robot in an open and friendly environment, which was video recorded. The efficacy and impacts were measured and analyzed through social signals and verbal responses. Results show that the robot can build a positive and friendly relationship with children while achieving learning outcomes. This study demonstrates the possibilities of introducing NAO into the curriculum and calls for further research toward implementing humanoid robots in classroom settings.

Reality television (RT) programming is frequently and rightfully criticized and yet its popularity among adolescent and young adult viewers is also undeniable. In response to the need for media literacy programs to address the pleasures, the problems, and the pedagogy of the genre, we have chosen to take a cross-national, comparative approach and to model a process for teaching through our own research. Three popular reality tv programs were selected from each of our respective nations (China, South Korea, the United States) from one of three subgenres: Dancing, Restaurants, and Travel. We each watched episodes of all nine programs, inventoried their features and took notes. We then compared and contrasted the programs cross-nationally and across genres, and identified four themes: Pedagogy; Individualism and Collectivism; Tradition and Modernity; and Globalism and Nationalism. We found striking differences across nations in our analysis that provide important insights into our respective national cultures. In conclusion, we discuss the implications of our process for teaching about RT.

This study applies CDA and story grammar analysis to investigate how Chinese language textbooks for primary schools foster Chinese national identity through their depiction of Chinese people struggling against foreign invaders. The analysis was conducted on 12 textbooks and the findings were based on stories featuring a range of ages, from children to soldiers and artists, who all displayed patriotic spirit and were willing to risk their lives for China. The textbooks also highlight China's past humiliation, such as the Nanjing Massacre and the loss of territories such as Hong Kong, Macao, and Taiwan. The authors of those textbooks seek to encourage the students' national identity by promoting a sense of patriotism, sacrifice, vigilance against foreign threats, affirmation for the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), and putting the interests of the People's Republic of China (PRC) ahead of personal interests. Additionally, students are expected to have a strong sense of territorial sovereignty, recognizing Hong Kong, Macao, and Taiwan as parts of China. However, the results also show that the portrayal of Chinese national identity is Han-centric, excluding ethnic minorities.

This study explores the relationship between the L2 Motivational Self System--namely, the ideal L2 self and the ought-to L2 self--and L2 Willingness to Communicate (L2 WTC) in the classroom (a typical place for English communication among EFL learners) and in the extramural digital setting (an emerging English communication channel increasingly used by young EFL learners). To this end, 417 Chinese EFL middle school students (ages 12 to 14) participated in the study. After controlling for demographic factors hierarchical multiple regression results showed that the ideal L2 self significantly predicted L2 WTC both in the classroom and in an extramural digital setting. Interview data (n = 4) also elaborated that students attempted to lessen the discrepancy between their current L2 self (e.g., EFL learners) and ideal L2 self-images (e.g., discussing the professional National Basketball Association in an American radio program) by becoming more willing to communicate in both communication environments. In addition to new research directions, these results offer pedagogical implications that the ideal L2 self can facilitate L2 communication orientation in in-class and out-of-class digital environments, both of which are typically venues for L2 communication among today's young EFL learners.

Reading motivation can greatly impact reading comprehension, but it tends to diminish in and beyond elementary school. This study employs knowledge building pedagogy to advance reading motivation and comprehension in an elementary Chinese language arts class. Participants were twenty-four third graders who spent one class period (ie, 40 minutes) for 18 weeks in Knowledge Forum to study 10 lessons in a reading textbook. Data mainly came from: a reading motivation questionnaire, online interaction logs, online discourse and PILRS reading comprehension assessments. It was found that knowledge building enhanced children's reading motivation (particularly in terms of reading competence) and reading comprehension (especially at the higher levels). Most students demonstrated spontaneous engagement in advanced online activities demanding high-level agency. A correlation was also identified between children's motivation to read and more advanced online discourse behaviours requiring higher agency, leading to a deeper understanding of reading. Implications for fostering a motivated reading community that values collective knowledge advancement are discussed.

Background: Autistic individuals show differences in social and behavioral performances. Autism-related stigma affects autistic children as well as their caregivers (e.g., parents). Research has shown that stigmatizing reactions from others toward caregivers of autistic children are common and that these caregivers suffer from affiliate stigma. Aims: To examine the level of affiliate stigma among parents of autistic children and its predictive factors in mainland China. Methods: This was a cross-sectional study involving parents of autistic children from mainland China. The sample consisted of 183 parents (mean age = 36.5 years). The measures assessed included demographic characteristics, and parents completed two questionnaires. The Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS) was used to evaluate the characteristics of children by their parent's subjective assessments, and the Affiliate Stigma Scale (ASS) was used to investigate the affiliate stigma level of parents. Results: The affiliate stigma levels of parents of autistic children were high, and the mean score of the affect subscale was higher than those of the other subscales. The mean ASS score differed significantly between employed and unemployed parents, those aged under 40 and over 40, and high- and low-income parents. The hierarchical regression analysis showed that parents' age, monthly household income, and mean SRS score were significant predictors of the mean ASS score. The results indicated that parents of autistic children and their children need more social support and inclusion in mainland China. Conclusion: The present study confirms the importance of studying primary caregivers (i.e., parents) in the context of traditional mainland Chinese culture. Although preliminarily, findings showed that the affiliate stigma levels of parents are high in mainland China, probably due to the influence of traditional cultural values. Moreover, considering the importance of autistic child characteristics, our results suggest that we should increase public knowledge of autism, enrich the general understanding of autism, and reduce the autism-related stigma of parents in mainland Chinese societies.

The environmental issues has transcended the confines of national boundaries and become global concerns. To address these matters, Environmental Education (EE) has emerged as a pivotal strategy aimed at elevating students' awareness, knowledge, and attitude towards the environment. In this light, China has incorporated EE into its official curriculum since 2003. Given that China is a multiethnic nation with 56 officially acknowledged ethnic groups, schools catering to minorities are also required to integrate EE into their curricula, as mandated by the PRC government. Against this backdrop, this study appraises the environmental content of three textbooks: "Morality and the Rule of Law, Korean Language, and Character and Society," published by Yanbian Education Publishing House in 2016 for Chosunjok (ethnic Koreans), which represents the 13th largest minority group in China. To reveal the underlying ideologies and cultural values embedded in environmental texts, this study employs critical Curriculum theories and environmental literacy (EL) as analytical frameworks. The findings are organized into three categories: Knowledge, Affective, and Behaviour, which are the primary components of EL. The Behaviour category is given the most emphasis, as it encourages students to take responsibility for environmental protection. The Knowledge and Affective categories are also well-represented in the texts. However, the study observes a tendency to avoid discussing current environmental issues in China and to attribute environmental problems to dominant groups without clear explanations. Therefore, the article recommends that critical perspectives be promoted among students and teachers to enhance the quality of environmental education and reveal concealed ideologies in environmental discourse.