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There are three pressures facing China's employment problems: (1) The re-employment of laid-off workers; (2) The employment of rural workers who have come to the cities from the countryside seeking work; and (3) The university students who are entering the workforce for the first time. These three pressures on the labor market have different backgrounds and different human resources levels, each with their own characteristics, so a different response is needed for each of these three employment problems. Putting it briefly, China has a low level of education and a low-quality workforce, with university students occupying a special position in the labor market. In this article, the author discusses how a market-driven career guidance model can be a solution to meet the educational needs of China's future workforce. The author contends that a market mechanism should be developed that allows student as the basic employment channel for university students, guaranteeing that graduates fit society's needs. [Translated by Jennifer Eagleton.]

Through analyzing basic conditions of the "five mining areas" in the Laoqing Mountain of the Dianchi Lake Basin, in Kunming Gty, South China, the ecological restoration design of "integrating engineering protection and biological restoration, building the landscape ecological security pattern of the Laoqing Mountain" was proposed. Considering the different ecological functional areas, varying engineering measures, greening patterns, and irrigation means were selected for the ecological restoration, including site management, vegetation restoration, management and utilization etc. These ecological restoration measures will produce favorable ecological benefits, and also take landscape effect and sustainable development into consideration, which will contribute to the ecological restoration of the "five mining areas", and provide a scientific and feasible reference for the ecological restoration in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thanks to successful economic growth, social development, and strict implementation of family planning policies, the demographic transition in China has been accomplished at a much earlier stage of development than in other countries. I call this outcome "aging before affluence." As a result of this demographic transition, China has already passed through its Lewis turning point, and its demographic dividend from the decline in the population dependence ratio is about to end. I identify a potential nexus between "aging before affluence" and the "middle-income trap." China is losing comparative advantage in labor-intensive industries, but China is not ready to gain comparative advantage in technology-intensive and capital-intensive industries. For China to avoid the middle-income trap, it must (1) transform economic growth to a consumptiondriven pattern; (2) shift the labor-intensive industries to the central and western regions; and (3) speed up technological catching up. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

在城市劳动力市场上，农村劳动力根据个人的人力资本积累状况和当地的劳动力 市场条件，在成为自我经营者和工资收入者之间进行就业选择。简单的Mincer工资方 程回归结果显示，工资收入者比自我经营者的教育回报率高出2个百分点左右。在矫 正了样本选择偏差之后，拓展的Mincer工资方程对工资收入者的教育回报率估计结果 在5.3%-6.8%之间。从培训角度看，简单培训、短期培训和正规培训对农民工再流动 都有显著作用，但简单培训对农民工的工资收入作用不显著，而短期培训和正规培训 则对其工资收入有着重要的决定作用。此外，工资拖欠等权益保护问题也对农村劳动 力再流动有重要影响。在处理农民工的个人异质性和教育内生性问题时，本文还发现 父母受教育年限不是一个理想工具变量。关键词: 农民工 就业选择 再流动 教育与培训的回报率 处理效应模型 In the urban labor market, the rural labor force can choose whether to become self-employed or work for wages depending on their stock of human capital and local labor market conditions. A simple Mincer earnings regression shows that the rate of return to schooling for wage earners is two percentage points higher than that for the self-employed. After correcting for bias in sample selection, the expanded Mincer earnings equation estimated the rate of return to schooling for wage earners at between 5.3 and 6.8 percent. From the standpoint of training, we found that the simplest form of training, short-term training and formal training played an important role in promoting migrant workers' repeat mobility. However, the simplest form of training did not have a significant effect on earnings, whereas short-term and formal training played an important determining role in this respect. Moreover, rights protection issues such as wage arrears also had an important effect on migrant workers' repeat mobility. In handling heterogeneity and endogenous educational variables among migrant workers, the authors found that the years of schooling of the parents of migrant workers were not an ideal instrumental variable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using an input-output method, this paper simulates the impacts of the global financial crisis and the decline of exports on China's economy and employment. With shrinking external demand, boosting domestic demand becomes crucial for maintaining economic growth and promoting employment. Our simulated results indicate that an investment scenario with employment as a priority can achieve the objective of employment maximization without significantly reducing growth. Public investment should focus on employment, education, health, housing and social security to rebalance China's economy so that it can realize sustained and stable economic growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the impact of the 2008-2009 global economic crisis on the employment in China. An overview of China's different sectors in labor market is presented. It mentions that the global financial crisis has seriously affected lives of the rural migrant workers and new college graduates. It notes that the Chinese government provides assistance by conducting vocational training, expanding recruitment of graduates, and offering fiscal stimulus package.

This study uses survey data collected from five large cities in China to describe and decompose the earnings difference between female and male workers. The results indicate that the main source of lower earnings for females lies in unequal pay within sectors, and that the earnings gap due to differences in sectoral attainment is relatively small. The results also reveal that most of the gender earnings differential is attributable to sex discrimination rather than to the gender difference in the endowment of human capital. Therefore, eliminating discrimination against females within individual sectors is effective in narrowing the gender earnings gap. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using a counterfactual analysis approach, the present paper examines a host of conventional wisdoms relating to issues of farmer, the countryside and agriculture, which are believed to be all originated from the existence of mass surplus laborers in China. When analyzing various sources of statistics, evidence shows that there is no longer a large pool of surplus laborers in rural China as most people believe. Based on this counterfactual result, all related events, such as the direction of agricultural technological changes, the level of comparative productivity of agricultural labor, and the degree of rural-urban income gap must be reconsidered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Manufacturing industry in China has experienced a rapid output growth since the 1990s. In the meantime, the increasing expansion of manufacturing goods export and Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) inflow has been witnessed during the same period. Correspondingly, manufacturing employment is expected to grow at a similar magnitude. The aggregate statistics, however, did not show the similar growth pattern in terms of manufacturing employment. We call this phenomenon as "jobless growth puzzle". This paper attempts to explain this puzzle observed in the manufacturing industry. Economic restructure has caused a sharp decline of manufacturing employment in the State-Owned Enterprises (SOEs), which triggers a sluggish job growth at the aggregate level. In fact, the expansion of non-SOEs manufacturing sector has contributed a high employment growth. Changes in regional comparative advantage have driven a spatial re-allocation of manufacturing employment that also attenuates the net growth of manufacturing employment. A rapid rise in wage rates resulted in a dynamic adjustment of manufacturing employment in recent years. These changes that determine aggregate manufacturing employment have important policy implications to the development of labour market in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

By employing an analytical framework based on institutional economics, this paper intends to investigate the rural urban income gap and its critical points for change. The level of rural urban income gap in 1978 broke the institutional equilibrium on which the traditional rural urban relationship relied, leading to overall reform in rural China. In the post-reform period, utilizing their superior influence on policy-making, urban residents have so far succeeded in maintaining urban biased government policies, deterring rural labor from migrating to cities permanently. The urban residents’ major lobbying mechanism is through their “vote” and “voice”, something in which their rural counterparts are lacking. However, farmers have a way to “get around” the urban biased policies which are unfavorable to them. This “voting with their feet” eventually will drive the policy change. When the rural urban income gap increases to the level of 1978, a critical point for institutional change will have been reached. The timing and conditions will be ripe for reform of the whole policy package on which the present rural urban divide has been built. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Demographic transition has occurred more rapidly in China than in most developed countries. As the population ages, the growth rate of the working age population has started to decline and the absolute quantity of the working age population will begin to shrink after 2015, which will inevitably result in structural labor shortage. Under the circumstance where comparative advantage is still embodied in its labor-intensive commodities, timely and sufficient supply of a skilled labor force is vital for China to sustain fast economic growth. (Edited by Zhinan Zhang) [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the most important remaining issues in China's transition to a market economy is the reform of state-owned enterprises (SOE's). When reforms started in late 1978, SOE's dominated China's industrial sectors in every aspect. After 18 years of gradual transition, the SOE share in China's total industrial output has declined from 77.6 percent in 1978 to 28.8 percent in 1996. However, in 1996 SOE's still employed 57.4 percent of urban workers and possessed 52.2 percent of total investment in industrial fixed assets. Improving SOE performance is crucial for social stability and sustained growth in China. However, over 40 percent of SOE's are losing money. In this paper, the authors will argue that the root of the SOE problem is the separation of ownership and control and that the often-criticized soft-budget constraints arise from various state-imposed policy burdens, which make the state accountable for the poor performance of SOE's. The key for a successful SOE reform is to remove the policy burdens and to create a level playing field so that market competition can provide sufficient information for the managerial performance of the SOE's and make the managers' incentives compatible with those of the state. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To explore famous veteran traditional Chinese medicine( TCM) doctors' medication rules in treating spermatorrhea based on the medical cases about spermatorrhea collected from Hundred TCM Clinical Doctors of Hundred Years in China and Proven Cases and National Medical Master Test Case. Researchers extracted such data as medicinal and therapies from these cases according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Then,Excle 2010,SPSS Clementine 12. 0 and SPSS 22. 0 were adopted respectively for frequency analysis,association rules analysis,cluster analysis and factor analysis. Cluster analysis was carried out by Ochiai algorithm of binary variable data,one of the systematic clustering methods. And principal component analysis was used for factor analysis. Finally,27 medical cases and 41 prescriptions were included in total. The frequency analysis showed that the most common therapy was the astringent therapy( n = 28),which was followed by the tonifying method,tranquilizing method,heat-clearing method,damp-dispelling method and Qiregulating method. The top three kinds of high-frequency traditional Chinese medicines were Poria,Ostreae Concha and Dioscoreae Rhizoma. The association rules analysis found out 11 association rules of medicine pairs,23 association rules of medicine combinations of the three kinds of herbs and 6 association rules of medicine combinations of five kinds of herbs. Among them,the representatives were Rubi Fructus→Fossilia Ossis Mastodi,Rehmanniae Radix Praeparata + Corni Fructus→Dioscoreae Rhizoma,and Pinelliae Rhizoma→Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium,which showed the therapeutic characteristics of astringing,tonifying the kidney and replenishing essence,fortifying the spleen and dispelling dampness. Moreover,7 medicine groups with relevance were extracted from the tree map generated by cluster analysis,including " Phellodendri Chinensis Cortex and Anemarrhenae Rhizoma" and " Angelicae Sinensis Radix,Rehmanniae Radix,Bupleuri Radix and Glycyrrhizae Radix et Rhizoma",which demonstrated the effects of nourishing Yin and purging fire,tonifying and soothing the liver. Besides,totally 12 common factors were obtained according to factor analysis,including 14 drug combinations,like " Amomi Fructus,Anemarrhenae Rhizoma and Phellodendri Chinensis Cortex" and " Nelumbinis Stamen,Moutan Cortex,Poria and Scrophulariae Radix",which indicated the compatibility characteristics of tonifying the spleen and purging fire,dispelling dampness and clearing heat. In conclusion,data mining techniques( including frequency analysis,association rules analysis,cluster analysis and factor analysis) were used to comprehensively analyze the famous veteran TCM doctors' medication rules in treating spermatorrhea,which was helpful for guiding the clinical practice of treating spermatorrhea in TCM.

Objective: In March 2012, an H7N7 subtype avian influenza virus (AIV) named A/wild goose/Dongting/PC0360/2012 (H7N7) (DT/PC0360) was recovered from a wild goose in East Dongting Lake. We performed whole-genome sequencing of the isolate, and analyzed the phylogenetic and molecular characterization., Methods: RNA was extracted from environment samples (including fecal samples from wild bird or domestic ducks, and water samples) for detecting the presence of Influenza A Virus targeting Matrix gene, using realtime RT-PCR assay. The positive samples were performed virus isolation with embryonated eggs. The subtype of the isolates were identified by RT-PCR assay with the H1-H16 and N1-N9 primer set. The whole-genome sequencing of isolates were performed. Phylogenetic and molecular characterizations of the eight genes of the isolates were analyzed., Results: Our results suggested that all the eight gene segments of DT/PC0360 belonged to the Eurasian gene pool, and the HA gene were belonged to distinct sublineage with H7N9 AIV which caused outbreaks in Mainland China in 2013. The hemagglutinin cleavage site of HA of DT/PC0360 showed characterization of low pathogenic avian influenza virus., Conclusion: Strengthening the surveillance of AIVs of wild waterfowl and poultry in this region is vital for our knowledge of the ecology and mechanism of transmission to prevent an influenza pandemic., (Copyright © 2015 The Editorial Board of Biomedical and Environmental Sciences. Published by China CDC. All rights reserved.)

To understand and master the dynamic variation of the pandemic influenza A (H1N1) 2009 in Hunan province from 2009 to 2011, and to know the genetic characteristics and drug resistance of the pandemic (H1N1) 2009 viruses. Throat swab specimens of influenza-like illness patients were collected from sentinel hospitals and tested for influenza by fluorescent PCR or virus isolation methods. Partial isolates were selected for sequencing. The sequences were used for phylogenetic analysis by MEGA 5. 05 software. From the 20th week of 2009 to the 52nd week of 2011, 17 773 specimens were tested. 3 831 specimens were influenza-positive with a positive rate of 21. 6%, of which 1 794 were positive specimens of pandemic (H1N1) 2009, accounting for 46. 8%00 of the influenza-positives. There were 2 epidemic peaks of pandemic (H1N1) 2009, which were in the 41st-53rd week of 2009 and the 1st-12nd week of 2011, respectively. The HA genes of 23 strains that were selected for sequencing had close relationship; the distribution of strains in the phylogenetic tree was basically in chronological order. The complete genome sequence analysis showed that all of 8 gene segments of 7 strains were homologous to the vaccine strain, and there was no gene reassortment. The HA amino acid sites of the 23 strains were highly similar to the vaccine strain (98. 2% - 100. 0% in homology), but all 23 strains had P83S, S203T and 1321V mutations. The 222 site mutation that may lead to enhanced virulence was found in the A/Hunan/YQ30/2009 strain. The mutation was D222E. There was no oseltamivir resistance mutation found in all strains. The pandemic (H1N1) 2009 in Hunan province from 2009 to 2011 had a bimodal distribution. There was no large-scale variation of virus genes. The clinical use of oseltamivir was still effective. Key words: Pandemic (H1N1) 2009; Surveillance; Genetic characteristics

Objective: To be acquainted with genetic characteristics and variation of mumps virus strains circulating in Hunan province., Methods: Mumps virus (MV) strains were isolated using Vero/ SLAM cells. The small hydrophobic protein (SH) genes of MV isolates were sequenced, and the sequences were analysed phylogenetically between the isolated strains and other reference mumps strains., Results: 4 mumps virus strains were isolated from 16 specimens collected in 2011 from different regions of Hunan province. The genotype of isolated strains were supposed to be F type., Conclusion: Genotype F is the main genotype of circulating strains in Hunan province in 2011 and there is no variation between genotype.

Objective: To establish equations for the estimation of glomerular filtration rates (eGFRs) based on serum creatinine (SCr) and/or serum cystatin C (SCysC) in Chinese patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD), and to compare the new equations with both the reference GFR (rGFR) and the literature equations to evaluate their applicability., Methods: The 788 Chinese CKD patients were randomly divided into two groups, the training group and the testing group, to establish new eGFR-formulas based on serum CysC and to validate the established formulas, respectively. (99m)Tc-DTPA clearance (as the rGFR), serum Cr, and serum CysC were determined for all patients, and GFR was calculated using the Cockcroft-Gault equation (eGFR1), the MDRD formula (eGFR2), the CKD-EPI formulas (eGFR3, eGFR4), and the Chinese eGFR Investigation Collaboration formulas (eGFR5, eGFR6). The accuracy of each eGFR was compared with the rGFR., Results: The training and testing groups' mean GFRs were 50.84±31.36 mL/min/1.73 m(2) and 54.16±29.45 mL/min/1.73 m(2), respectively. The two newly developed eGFR formulas were fitted using iterative computation: [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text]. Significant correlation was observed between each eGFR and the rGFR. However, proportional errors and constant errors were observed between rGFR and eGFR1, eGFR2, eGFR4, eGFR5 or eGFR6, and constant errors were observed between eGFR3 and rGFR, as revealed by the Passing & Bablok plot analysis. The Bland-Altman analysis illustrated that the 95% limits of agreement of all equations exceeded the previously accepted limits of <60 mL/min •1.73 m(2), except the equations of eGFR7 and eGFR8., Conclusion: The newly developed formulas, eGFR7 and eGFR8, provide precise and accurate GFR estimation using serum CysC detection alone or in combination with serum Cr detection. Differences in detection methods should be carefully considered when choosing literature eGFR equations to avoid misdiagnosis and mistreatment.

Objective: To investigate the gene variations of influenza B virus isolated in Hunan province from 2007 to 2010., Methods: A total of 42 strains of influenza B virus,which were isolated in the Influenza Surveillance Network Laboratories in Hunan province between year 2007 and 2010, were selected for the study. The hemagglutinin 1 (HA1) and neuraminidase (NA) genes of the selected strains were amplified by RT-PCR, and the sequence of the purified product were detected and homologically compared with the sequence of influenza vaccine strains isolated from Northern Hemisphere by WHO during the same period. In addition, the phylogenetic trees were constructed to characterize the molecular features., Results: In the Victoria branch of the HA1 gene phylogenetic tree, the strains isolated from year 2007 to 2009 were included in the V1 sub-branch, as well as the vaccine strain Malaysia/2506/2004; the strains isolated in year 2010 were involved in the V2 sub-branch, similar to the vaccine strains Brisbane/60/2008. In the Yamagata branch,the strains isolated in year 2007 were in the Y1 sub-branch,different from the strains isolated between year 2008 and 2010, which were in the Y2 sub-branch, instead. All virus in NA gene phylogenetic tree were included in the Yamagata branch, indicated their Yamagata origin. The genetic sequence analysis of the 7 strains isolated in year 2010 revealed that the viruses were classified as genotype 2 and genotype 15. The results of homological comparison between HA1 molecule and the influenza vaccine strains recommended by WHO were as below: Victoria lineage, 98.6% - 99.1% in 2007, 98.6% - 99.1% in 2008, 98.1% - 99.1% in 2009, and 97.6% - 99.1% in 2010; and Yamagata lineage, 97.9% - 98.5% in 2007, 97.9% - 98.5% in 2009 and 97.9% - 98.2% in 2010. The major mutations of the strains isolated in year 2007 were found in sites R48K, K88R, P108A, D197N and S230G. While the major mutations of the strains isolated between year 2009 and 2010 were sited in K88R, S150I, N166Y, D197N and S230G., Conclusion: The prevalent influenza B virus isolated in Hunan province from 2007 to 2010 has mutated and evolved continuously.

Objective: To understand the possible origins, genetic re-assortment and molecular characterization of 4 highly pathogenic avian influenza A (H5N1) viruses isolated from humans in Hunan province, between 2006 and 2009., Methods: H5N1 PCR test-positive specimens were inoculated in embryonated eggs while H5N1 virus was isolated and genomes sequenced. Genome homology and genetic molecular characterization were analyzed by BLAST and MEGA 4.0., Results: All gene segments of the 4 viruses were avian in origin. No re-assortment was found between avian influenza A (H5N1) viruses and human seasonal influenza viruses. Viruses that isolated from domestic poultry shared high similarity with the 4 human viruses in gene homology. Data from the whole genome phylogenetic analysis showed that the 4 viruses were in clade 2.3.4, while 2 viruses belonged to genotype V, and another 2 were new genotypes. Results from molecular characterization showed that amino acid sequences of HA cleavage site of the 4 viruses were PLRERRKR/G. All 4 viruses had A160T mutation in HA, a 20 amino acid deletion in the neuraminidase (NA) stalk at position 49 - 68, and a 5 amino acid deletion in the non-structural protein 1 (NS1). Most sites in the HA molecules showed that the viruses preferentially bound to avian influenza virus receptor. However, T192I mutation that might enhance the α 2, 6-linked sialic acid human influenza receptor binding had emerged in HN/1/09 and HN/2/09. D701N mutation of PB2 that increased the virulence in mice was found in HN/1/08. Analysis on drug resistance gene amino acid showed that all 4 viruses were sensitive to amantadine and oseltamivir., Conclusion: Highly pathogenic avian influenza A (H5N1) viruses isolated from humans in Hunan province from 2006 to 2009 were avian in origin, and the 4 viruses belonged to different genotypes. Some mutations that related to virulence and receptor binding positions had emerged in some of the strains.

Objective: To understand the infection condition and analytical methods of Influenza A (H1N1) virus in the population of Hunan Province during different periods., Methods: Quick surveys on the positive rate of Influenza A (H1N1) virus hemagglutination inhibition (HI) test have been conducted for 5 times successively from November 2009 to March 2010 in 14 medical and health institutions of Changsha city, whose results were then compared with those from the sampling surveys of whole Hunan province., Results: 2131 subjects were involved in this study; the total population standardized rates of antibody positive investigated for 5 times were 9.32% , 14.62%, 31.08%, 28.43% and 22.80% respectively; the population of 6-17-years-old has the highest rate of antibody positive; only 9.84% of the antibody positive subjects attributed to vaccine inoculation; there was no significant difference in the standardized positive rates between the quick serological surveys and the corresponding sampling survey of Hunan province (P > 0.05)., Conclusion: The positive rate of A (H1N1) virus antibody reached the peak in late January 2010; quick investigations in small region could be used to evaluate the infection prevalence during pandemic of infectious diseases.

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the third leading cause of cancer mortality worldwide and ranks second in China. The prognosis of HCC remains dismal mainly because of its late diagnosis, especially in patients with coexisting chronic liver diseases. To identify serum biomarkers for HCC, sera from 20 healthy volunteers, 20 hepatitis B virus (HBV) infected patients and 20 HCC patients were selected for screening study and same number of sera into the same three groups were used for validation study. A strategy including sonication, albumin and immunoglobulin G (IgG) depletion and desalting was optimized for screening differentially expressed proteins of low abundance in serum. By 2-DE image analysis and MALDI-TOF-MS/MS identification, eight proteins including heat-shock protein 27 (HSP27), alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), alpha-1 antitrypsin, clusterin, caeruloplasmin, haptoglobin alpha2 chain, tranferrin and transthyretin were found significantly changed among the healthy, HBV and HCC groups. Further validation study by Western blot showed the detection of HSP27 in 90% HCC sera and two HBV sera, but in none of normal sera. Thus, 2-DE based serum proteome analysis can be useful in the screening of serum biomarkers for HCC and HSP27 could aid in the diagnosis of HCC though further validation is needed.