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This study aimed to evaluate the reliability and validity of the translated Chinese version of the Communication Complexity Scale (C-CCS) in a Chinese sample of preschool-aged children with minimal verbal skills. A total of 120 children with autism spectrum disorders or children with developmental delays aged 2 to 5 years with minimal verbal skills (i.e., produced less than 20 functional words) were recruited to complete the C-CCS. First, we tested the protocol with 20 children and shortened it based on their results. Second, the interrater reliability, test-retest reliability, and concurrent validity for 100 participants were examined. C-CCS scores were compared with scores from the Chinese Communicative Development Inventories (CCDI) for concurrent validity. Ten C-CCS interactive scripts were administered to 100 participants. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) between independent observers were high. The ICCs for overall optimal scores, optimal BR scores and optimal JA scores were 0.978, 0.971 and 0.977 respectively. Agreement for scores within scripted opportunities and communication level were high-Kappa coefficients 0.869 and 1.000 respectively. The test-retest reliability was high (r = 0.911). A moderate correlation was found between the C-CCS and the CCDI (r = 0.401). The results indicate that C-CCS could be used as a measurement tool in research and clinical practice to describe communication levels in children with minimal verbal skills in China. The Chinese version of the Communication Complexity Scale was developed through a rigorous cultural adaptation process. The evidence shows that the Chinese version of the Communication Complexity Scale is a reliable and valid tool for children with minimal verbal skills in China. The Chinese version of the Communication Complexity Scale can be used in research and clinical practice to assess the general level of social communication skills of Chinese children who mainly communicate using preverbal communication and develop intervention programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among the technologies for the recovery of energy from waste, in particular residual municipal solid waste (rMSW), combustion is the most widely used thermo-chemical treatment process associated with thermal and electric power production by a steam cycle, named, shortly, Waste to Energy (WtE). Today, more than 500 WtE plants in the EU, about 400 in China and 76 in the USA are in operation, based on efficient technologies and advanced air pollution control systems. Energy recovery can be accomplished also by means of gasification; however, the presence of impurities together with the atmospheric pressure, at which syngas is normally produced, impose the feeding of syngas to a conventional steam cycle, leading to generally lower performances than WtE. The energy recovered by WtE offsets traditional energy sources such as fossil fuels and related emissions, providing savings in term of climate change. However, the savings obtainable by replacing electricity and/or heat will diminish as the energy systems will hopefully become increasingly renewable. Over this medium–long-term horizon, one possibility is to capture the CO2 from WtE flue gases and to store/use it. From the life cycle assessment perspective, it has been calculated that the introduction of CO2 capture and storage in WtE, despite energy penalties, is able to reduce the impact on climate change. The alternative approach, proposed to contain the emissions of greenhouse gases in the thermal treatment of waste, is using the carbon contained in it to produce commonly used chemical compounds (waste to chemicals). The benefits, in terms of reductions of greenhouse gases, are expected from the possibility of obtaining chemicals that can replace their analogue normally produced from fossil sources. To date, only one WtC demonstration plant is operating by being fed by rMSW-derived waste, and some similar initiatives are planned, but still adequate assurances in terms of robust knowledge of the involved complex processes, above all, if applied to highly inhomogeneous feed streams such as those obtained from rMSW, are not available. Once the several initiatives come to completion, it will enable waste management professionals to assess performance and to begin to consider such a facility in their planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) refers to the process of capturing and separating CO2 from emission sources such as energy utilization and industrial processes, or directly from the atmosphere, and transporting it to suitable locations for utilization or storage, in order to achieve long-term storage or conversion of CO2. Over the past century of development, CCUS has evolved from a standby technology primarily to becoming a crucial technology for achieving net-zero emissions. Its role in addressing climate change has become increasingly important. In this context, clusters and hubs have become the hot topics in the development of CCUS. By sharing costs and risks, as well as benefits and achievements, clusters and hubs will effectively promote the large-scale application of CCUS. Currently, there are about 25 CCUS cluster or hub projects being researched or constructed worldwide. The Longship project in Norway is a typical hub project and provides valuable insights for global peers. China's three major state-owned petroleum companies are also conducting research on CCUS cluster projects. In the future, multiple CCUS cluster projects will be established in the Bohai Bay Basin, Songliao Basin, Junggar Basin, Ordos Basin, as well as the Yangtze River Delta and the Pearl River Delta regions, providing strong impetus for the development of China's CCUS industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The shortage of urban water caused by CCS retrofitting over coal-fired power plants has become an emerging issue, especially in China where water resources are scarce. In this study, we quantified the impact of CCS retrofitting on water resources and analyzed the increased water pressures due to CCS retrofits in 234 cities of China. We identified 54 cities with 165 power plants that would face water pressure due to CCS retrofitting for achieving 2 °C targets. The results show that the average water withdrawal and water consumption of power plants in 234 cities would increase by 1.63 times and 1.49 times, respectively, involving 480 million people in China. The ratio of freshwater withdrawal to available water (WTA) and the ratio of freshwater consumption to available water (CTA) at the city-level increased by 0.2 and 0.06 under 2 °C constraints respectively, involving a population of 84 million people. Moreover, CO2-EWR technology does not provide relief from urban water stress. This paper assesses the water demand for carbon capture technologies and provides a basis for siting future large-scale deployment of carbon capture technologies in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China has pledged to achieve carbon peaking by 2030 and carbon neutrality by 2060. To achieve these goals, a significant reduction in carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions is required and thus ocean-based carbon dioxide removal (CDR) technologies are needed. This article explores the legal issues of two ocean CDR approaches, i.e. offshore carbon dioxide storage (CCS) and seaweed cultivation under the legal regimes for both climate change and oceans. Although there are no specific Chinese laws and regulations governing the offshore CCS or seaweed cultivation for carbon removal in place, some relevant existing environmental and other laws and regulations are applicable to such activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Synthetic natural gas (SNG) from coal gasification technology has become an alternative method to alleviate China's natural gas shortage. However, the Chinese SNG industry still faces a series of problems, such as low profits, high carbon emissions, and water shortages, and Chinese SNG policy is cautious and unstable. Considering economic, energy security, and environmental constraints, this study analyses the future of SNG in China by using a system dynamics model. The results are as follows. In under various circumstances, SNG production is projected to reach 20.8–44.2 bcm by 2030. SNG production could reduce the dependence on gas imports to 23–40% in 2030, which may help to reduce the risk of natural gas imports. The energy production efficiency index, EROI (Energy Return on Investment), of SNG is only approximately 1.5, and thus, economic profitability will remain very low for a long time; in general, price subsidies will be conducive to increasing SNG production. Based on these results, the study provides some suggestions for policy-makers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) has emerged as a promising way for achieving deep decarbonization of China's steel sector. Large-scale CCS deployment necessitates a comprehensive source-sink matching analysis to offer early engineering guidance. To address this issue, this study conducted a source-sink matching analysis of China's steel sector, assessing CO 2 sources, CO 2 storage capacities and costs, and CO 2 pipeline layouts under three capture targets. The findings reveal an obvious spatial mismatch between CO 2 sources and potential CO 2 sinks for China's steel sector. CO 2 sources are mainly situated in eastern China, while main CO 2 storage sites are located in western China. The average unit costs of CCS under low (30%), medium (60%), and full capture (90%) targets are 83, 91, and 118 $/t CO 2 , respectively. In particular, as capture target increases, the CO 2 transportation cost will supersede the capture cost and dominate the average CCS unit cost, owing to the construction of longer pipelines. This study recommends prioritizing CCS demonstration with steel plants in regions having suitable CO 2 storage basins nearby. Moreover, future investigations should concentrate on on-site experiments of CO 2 storage basins and the technology development of offshore carbon storage in China. • A high-resolution quantitative assessment of CCS network for China's steel sector. • Implementing CCS represents a significant additional cost burden for steel producers. • CO 2 transportation costs will be the main cost component as capture targets increase. • The uncertainty of CO 2 geological storage may lead to higher CCS costs. • Offshore CO 2 storage may be a promising way for China's CCS projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a zero-carbon energy, hydrogen energy is widey recognized as playing an important role in reducing carbon emissions and addressing climate change. Considering the resource and industrial conditions in China, the coal-to-hydrogen coupled with carbon capture and storage (CTHCCS) may be a necessary choice in the early stage of low-carbon hydrogen energy development. This study used real option models to analyze the investment benefits of the representative CTHCCS technology at the national and regional levels in the current and future development scenarios in China, and discusses the impact of uncertainties in carbon price, technological progress, and policy incentives on the CTHCCS investment. The results show that (1) The opportunity for immediate investment in the CTHCCS is not available in China unless the cost of carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology decreases and the carbon price increases significantly. (2) The current CTHCCS investment critical carbon price is 353.3 RMB/t, which will decrease by 45.0%, 73.9% and 57.3% when using the initial investment subsidy, carbon emission reduction subsidy and clean fuel subsidy, respectively. (3) The CTHCCS presents a relatively high investment benefit in Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia, and Shaanxi, highlighting that these areas are key pioneers for "blue hydrogen" production in China. • The real option model is used to evaluate investment decisions for CTHCCS projects. • Uncertainty of carbon price, technology progress and policy subsidy are considered. • Carbon price of 353.3 RMB/t could trigger immediate investment for CTHCCS projects. • Policy incentives lead to a 45–74 % reduction in the CTHCCS critical carbon price. • Xinjiang and Inner Mongolia could be priority areas for blue hydrogen production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The targets of limiting global warming levels below 2°C or even 1.5°C set by Paris Agreement heavily rely on bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS), which can remove carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and achieve net zero greenhouse gas (GHG) emission. Biomass and coal co‐firing with CCS is one of BECCS technologies, as well as a pathway to achieve low carbon transformation and upgrading through retrofitting coal power plants. However, few studies have considered co‐firing ratio of biomass to coal based on each specific coal power plant's characteristic information such as location, installed capacity, resources allocation, and logistic transportation. Therefore, there is a need to understand whether it is worth retrofitting any individual coal power plant for the benefit of GHG emission reduction. It is also important to understand which power plant is suitable for retrofit and the associated co‐firing ratio. In order to fulfill this gap, this paper develops a framework to solve these questions, which mainly include three steps. First, biomass resources are assessed at 1 km spatial resolution with the help of the Geography Information Science method. Second, by setting biomass collection points and linear program model, resource allocation and supply chain for each power plants are complete. Third, is by assessing the life‐cycle emission for each power plant. In this study, Hubei Province in China is taken as the research area and study case. The main conclusions are as follows: (a) biomass co‐firing ratio for each CCS coal power plant to achieve carbon neutral is between 40% and 50%; (b) lower co‐firing ratio sometimes may obtain better carbon emission reduction benefits; (c) even the same installed capacity power plants should consider differentiated retrofit strategy according to their own characteristic. Based on the results and analysis above, retrofit suggestions for each power plant are made in the discussion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Operators of coal-fired power plants with carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) can provide energy for carbon dioxide (CO2) capture by increasing coal input (option i) or reducing electricity output (option ii). Under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), does a flexible option exist in the future to provide energy for capturing CO2? In this study, we use a representative coal-fired power plant in China (600 MW) as a case study to assess the options to be implemented and the corresponding economic performance and emission reductions of coal-fired power plants with CCS. Both Monte Carlo simulation and the net present value (NPV) methods are used in this study. The results show that the flexible options yield an average NPV that is 57.36 and 48.07 million Chinese Yuan more than the net present values of option i and option ii, respectively, during three crediting periods. Additionally, the implementation of flexible options can improve the emission reduction effect in coal-fired power plants with CCS and promote the optimization of power systems. The priority for expanding the positive effects of flexible options is for international climate change policy negotiators and policymakers to formulate stricter international emission reduction policies with a high certified emission reduction price. In addition, a good communication and coordination mechanism between the coal-fired power plants and the administration of the power system are required to ensure the efficient implementation of flexible options. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China's consumption of liquid fuels as well as the dependence on foreign oil has increased considerably in recent years. Alternative liquid fuel technologies such as coal to liquid (CTL) are attracting attentions. However, facing uncertainties of energy price and carbon price as well as policy fluctuations and potential CO 2 utilizations, evaluations of CTL project becomes a complex question. In this context, we develop a sequential investment real options decision model of a typical CTL-CCS project in China with the flexibility in investment timing and operation. As an application, the model is used to evaluate Shenhua direct coal liquefaction (DCL) project with CCS retrofits option. Four scenarios and sensitivities of key parameters are discussed. The results show that under current market and policy conditions the CTL project is economically infeasible but the option to delay is of huge value. A high level of carbon price or carbon tax is necessary to make the CCS retrofit economically feasible despite relatively lower capture costs, while the captured CO 2 could be better utilized for Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR). We suggest the government to exempt fuel tax for enhancing the economic viability of CTL companies, especially in the current condition of low oil price. • A sequential investment real options decision model is established for CTL-CCS evaluation. • Uncertainties on prices and policy fluctuations, and flexibilities in investment timing and operation are fully considered. • Shenhua direct coal liquefaction (DCL) project with CCS retrofits option has been evaluated. • Currently the CTL project is economically infeasible but the option to delay is of huge value. • A high level of carbon price is needed to make the CCS retrofit economically feasible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Narrative and statistical evidence were equally effective persuaders for acceptance of CCS. • Statistical evidence elicited more safety concerns and opposition to CO 2 storage sites nearby. • Narrative evidence elicited concerns on both safety and cost alike. • These results were the same for students and employees. In order to discover a better way of communicating with the public about carbon capture and storage (CCS), we surveyed 300 college students and 200 company employees via two different versions of a questionnaire to compare the persuasiveness and differential impact of narrative evidence versus statistical evidence on public perception towards CCS. Results showed narrative and statistical evidence were equally effective in gaining public acceptance of CCS, but the "Not In My Back Yard" (NIMBY) phenomenon was more evident in responses to the statistical version than to the narrative version of the questionnaire. In the student group, participants were significantly more opposed to CO 2 pipelines and storage sites being located nearby when they were exposed to statistical presentation. In the employee group, statistical evidence elicited more negative attitudes towards CO 2 storage projects being sited nearby. Nine different concerns emerged from the responses to an open-ended question inviting participants to specify "any concern or worry about utilizing CCS". The themes revealed that those presented with statistical evidence were mainly concerned about health and safety, while those presented with narrative evidence were concerned about safety and cost alike. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The world's largest Chemical Looping Combustion (CLC) demonstration unit is ready for start-up. • CLC seems to be the most cost-effective technology for power production based on solid fuels with carbon capture. • Building large units as a collaborative effort across continents is complicated, but may be both beneficial and very rewarding when all partners work closely together. The world's largest Chemical Looping Combustion (CLC) demonstration unit is being built close to the city of Chengdu in China. The design and construction of the unit, as well as the coming testing, is done within the CHEERS project, which is a collaborative project between Europe and China. The funding (∼25M€) comes from several of the project partners, in addition to EU's Horizon2020 and China's Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST). TotalEnergies has been responsible for the Front-End Engineering Design (FEED) study. The investment decision from December 2021 marks the transition from the R&D studies and design phases to Engineering, Procurement, Construction (EPC) and testing phase. The EPC phase has been led by Dongfang Boiler Co.,Ltd, and the demonstration unit is located at their technology development site in Deyang City, outside Chengdu in China. It is designed for a thermal input of 2–4 MW and includes two different reactor configurations. The first configuration is optimized for conversion of pet-coke, while the second one is tuned towards conversion of lignite. The oxygen carrier (OC) that will be used for the demonstration unit (ilmenite) will be presented, together with an overview of the various OC materials that were tested at various scales (up to 150 kWth) during the first part of the project. In addition, results from testing of a cold mock-up of the unit is presented. Finally, an overview of plans for the rest of the project is given, together with some thoughts related to intercontinental collaboration in highly collaborative projects, such as CHEERS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Bohai Bay Basin is the largest petroliferous sedimentary basin in China. This basin is encompassed by the Bohai Sea economic zone where a large volume of CO 2 is emitted directly into the atmosphere without any treatment. Meanwhile, most of the oil and gas provinces in this basin are facing the selection of tertiary recovery technologies after the completion of water flooding. CO 2 enhanced oil recovery (CO 2 -EOR) is an optimal choice for achieving both a reduction in CO 2 emissions and enhanced (or improved) oil recovery. In this paper, an evaluation of the CO 2 -EOR and CO 2 storage potential was carried out at the reservoir scale, based on an established oil reservoir database from numerous data sources, to provide the basis investigating CO 2 -EOR site selection and regional CO 2 emission reduction in China. Moreover, an assessment scheme for the oil reservoirs in the Bohai Bay Basin was also proposed. The results showed that 613 CO 2 -EOR candidate oil reservoirs, including 354 miscible CO 2 -EOR candidate oil reservoirs and 259 immiscible CO 2 -EOR candidate oil reservoirs were identified by applying the screening methodology to 2,891 oil reservoirs in the Bohai Bay Basin. It was predicted that 683 Mt of additional oil can be produced from the CO 2 -EOR candidate oil reservoirs, and simultaneously 1,345 Mt of CO 2 would be incidentally stored in these candidate oil reservoirs. Furthermore, the most prospective area is the miscible CO 2 -EOR candidate oil reservoirs in the Shengli oil and gas province, where 140 Mt oil could be produced with the CO 2 -EOR and the injection and incidental storage of 225 Mt of CO 2 . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although post-combustion carbon capture (PCC) has been regarded as a near-commercial technology, the scale-up development of PCC the technology remains hindered by its severe thermodynamic and economic penalties. As a consequence, the solar-assisted carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology is emerging recently, which poses a promising possibility to offset the power generation loss caused by the intensive energy consumption from PCC process. Nevertheless, the application potential of the solar-assisted CCS technology would highly depend on its realistic greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation benefit as well as its cost relative to alternative low carbon technologies. Thus, it is required to apply an improved assessment practice to recognize solutions for such sustainable power supply chains, considering an increasing threatening from climate change. In this study, solar-assisted post-combustion CCS processes are analyzed trough a life cycle approach, combing life cycle GHG assessment and life cycle cost analysis. A typical 300MWe coal-fired power plant in China is taken as the case study. Three scenarios are further analyzed: (1) base case integrated with CCS process; (2) base case integrated with CCS and solar-assisted reboiler heating process; (3) base case extended to CCS and solar-assisted repowering process. Results show that the solar-assisted repowering case has considerable advantage in both GHG mitigation potential and cost aspect with superior life cycle GHG reduction rate and life cycle cost of energy removed (LCOR) at 73.7% and 37.2$/ t c o 2 − e q respectively. While the solar-assisted reboiler heating case does not have evident competition superiority. It is further highlighted that the GHG emissions from the upstream and transportation stages are also critical for Chinese CCS chains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rapid growth of energy demands in China surpasses the progress of introducing new clean energy sources. China has relied upon fossil fuel for several decades, which caused China to produce the largest CO 2 emission and to influence climate change in the world. Thus, China’s fossil fuel-dependent power sector needs to reduce CO 2 emission. Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is one of the solutions to decrease CO 2 emission, and geological CO 2 sequestration (GCS) is recommended considering its high potential and effectiveness. In this study, the efforts to implement geological CO 2 sequestration in China are reviewed, and current technical issues are addressed. The potential storage candidates including depleted oil and gas reservoirs, unminable coal seams, saline aquifers, and hydrate bearing sediments are introduced with the data collected from the pilot, demonstration, and large-scale projects in China. Among potential sites, saline aquifers have been considered as sites with the highest potential for CO 2 storage in China because of their enormous capacity. Main trapping mechanisms including structural-, capillary residual-, solubility- and mineral-trappings support saline aquifers as the most possible CO 2 storage site. Also, CO 2 injectivity and CO 2 -brine displacement efficiency in saline aquifers are explored to improve the efficiency of CO 2 injection with current techniques including visualizing experimental testing method for two-phase immiscible flow such as microfluidic model and X-ray computed tomography (X-CT) method. Finally, regulatory acts in China are explained as the potential rules for monitoring the safety of the GCS projects in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The emission trading system (ETS) is a key policy for China to achieve carbon neutrality. China's national ETS started operation and covered the power sector first, which will promote its transformation. This study explores how China's national ETS can support the future decarbonization of the power system. With benchmark tightening, China's ETS can cost-effectively peak CO 2 emissions of the power sector before 2030 and reduce 13% of the total emissions by 2035, compared to a No-Carbon-Pricing Scenario. Under the ETS, the allowance price would rise gradually to 350 yuan/tCO 2 by 2035. The main driving factor for emissions reduction would be improving the efficiency of coal-fired power generation between 2020 and 2025 and deploying carbon capture and storage (CCS) from 2030, respectively. Fuel-switching away from coal is limited under the ETS with technology-specific benchmarks and free allocation. Regional distributional effects could arise under the ETS. Regions with a higher share of ultra-supercritical units could have allowance surpluses at the beginning, while only regions with CCS-equipped coal-fired units have the potential to gain high allowance surpluses by 2035. • Introduce output-based emission trading system into an electricity planning model. • Assess the driving factor for emission reduction under emission trading system. • Evaluate the regional distributional effects under emission trading system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China encourages the demonstration of carbon capture and storage (CCS) projects. In an effort to identify gaps and provide suggestions for environmental risk management of carbon dioxide (CO) geological storage in China, this article presents a concise overview of potential health, safety and environmental (HSE) risks and environmental management regulations for CO geological storage in Australia, Japan, the United States (USA), the European Union (EU), and the United Kingdom (UK). The environmental impact assessment (EIA) experience of Shenhua Ordos Coal-to-Liquid (CTL) Project and PetroChina Jilin Oil Field enhanced oil recovery (EOR) is subsequently analyzed in light of our field investigation, and gaps in current EIA guidelines that are applicable to CO geological storage projects are identified. It is found that there are no specific environmental risk regulations suitable for CO storage in China, and environmental risk management lags behind the development of CCS technology, which presents a challenge to demonstration enterprises in terms of assessing environmental risk. One major challenge is the overestimation or underestimation of this risk on the part of the enterprise, and another is a lack of applicable regulations for government sectors to supervise the risk throughout CCS projects. Therefore, there is a pressing need for China to formulate environmental management regulations that include environmental risk assessment, mandatory monitoring schemes, environmental emergency plans, and related issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, China has accelerated the development of CCUS (CO 2 capture, utilization and storage) technology and started construction of the first megaton-scale CCS-EOR (CO 2 capture and storage combined with enhanced oil recovery) project. Taking China's first megaton-scale CCS-EOR project as an example, this study constructs a comprehensive evaluation method that integrates the decision rules of the real option approach and net present value approach to evaluate the economics and investment strategies of China's CCS-EOR projects under multiple uncertainties. The results show that the project investment in 2022 can create a profit of 2.94 million USD because of the introduction of a tax credit policy that will begin in 2030 with an initial amount of 10 USD/ton of CERs (certified emission reductions) and an annual increment of 2 USD/ton of CERs, but the optimal time to invest should be 2025. Without this incentive policy, the profit opportunity and ability of the case project will be greatly reduced. In addition, the decision-making of CCS-EOR project investment is extremely sensitive to capital cost, oil production, incentive policy start time, and incentive intensity. Therefore, China should formulate and implement tax credit incentives or similar policies with a high incentive intensity as soon as possible to improve the confidence of potential CCUS investors. Direct financial support for early CCS-EOR projects through government financial allocations should be an important addition. In addition, enterprises should strive to accurately calculate and forecast the capital cost and oil production. • The economics and investment strategies of China's CCS-EOR projects are evaluated. • More realistic key variable data is used. • Investment in CCS-EOR projects is unlikely to be profitable without incentives. • Deferring the investment in Sinopec's megaton-scale project can get option value. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The success of a new technology (like carbon capture and storage (CCS)) not only depends on sound technical and engineering practice but also involves societal, political and economic factors. High public acceptance is viewed as one of the critical factors. To date, there has been little systematic research into public communication and engagement in regard to CCS in China. A national survey on public perception (but biased towards the views of the educated elite of the Chinese population) of CCS technology was conducted from July 2013 to December 2013. The objectives of the survey were to assess the following issues: public understanding of the climate sciences, society’s knowledge and acceptance of low emission technologies (especially of CCS technology), public interests and concerns about the positive and negative impacts of CCS technology, and public attitudes towards CCS policies supported by the government. Finally, high-level suggestions for mechanisms to raise public understanding and frame the social acceptance on CCS technology in China are proposed based on a SWOT analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The aim of the present article is to conduct an integrated assessment in order to explore whether CCS could be a viable technological option for significantly reducing future CO 2 emissions in China. Methods: In this paper, an integrated approach covering five assessment dimensions is chosen. Each dimension is investigated using specific methods (graphical abstract). Results: The most crucial precondition that must be met is a reliable storage capacity assessment based on site-specific geological data. Our projection of different trends of coal-based power plant capacities up to 2050 ranges between 34 and 221 Gt of CO 2 that may be captured from coal-fired power plants to be built by 2050. If very optimistic assumptions about the country’s CO 2 storage potential are applied, 192 Gt of CO 2 could theoretically be stored as a result of matching these sources with suitable sinks. If a cautious approach is taken, this figure falls to 29 Gt of CO 2 . In practice, this potential will decrease further with the impact of technical, legal, economic and social acceptance factors. Further constraints may be the delayed commercial availability of CCS in China; a significant barrier to achieving the economic viability of CCS due to a currently non-existing nation-wide CO 2 pricing scheme that generates a sufficiently strong price signal; an expected life-cycle reduction rate of the power plant’s greenhouse gas emissions of 59–60%; and an increase in most other negative environmental and social impacts. Conclusion and practice implications: Most experts expect a striking dominance of coal-fired power generation in the country’s electricity sector, even if the recent trend towards a flattened deployment of coal capacity and reduced annual growth rates of coal-fired generation proves to be true in the future. In order to reduce fossil fuel-related CO 2 emissions to a level that would be consistent with the long-term climate protection target of the international community to which China is increasingly committing itself, this option may require the introduction of CCS. However, a precondition for opting for CCS would be finding robust solutions to the constraints highlighted in this article. Furthermore, a comparison with other low-carbon technology options may be useful in drawing completely valid conclusions on the economic, ecological and social viability of CCS in a low-carbon policy environment. The assessment dimensions should be integrated into macro-economic optimisation models by combining qualitative with quantitative modelling, and the flexible operation of CCS power plants should be analysed in view of a possible role of CCS for balancing fluctuating renewable energies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions become the primary factor for the global warming, whereas carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), as one of the primary greenhouse gases, takes an inescapable responsibility for climate change. Currently, various energy conservation and carbon emission reduction technologies, including the carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology, as well as other clean, low-carbon energy exploitation technologies exhibit a rapid development trend to alleviate the growing crisis of climate change. Other than traditional CO 2 geological storage, a novel geoengineering approach of CO 2 geological utilization and storage, named CO 2 geological storage combining with deep saline water/brine recovery (CO 2 -EWR), is put forward to solve the dilemma between the increasing carbon emissions from coal chemical industry and national energy and water security in China. Compared with the traditional CCS technology, CO 2 -EWR has two advantages: (1) it can control the relief of reservoir pressure and water production by a reasonable design of pumping wells to achieve the security and stability of the large-scale geological storage of CO 2 ; (2) it can collect and process deep saline water after a treatment for life drinking, industrial and/or agricultural utilizations to alleviate the water shortage situation as well as ecological environmental problems, and in addition, the deep brine resources may create considerable profit margins by cascade extraction, which could be used to fill the gap of cost primarily criticized from capture and sequestration processes of current CCS technologies. China mainland can be partitioned into three potential CO 2 -EWR zones primarily according to different types of aquifer system, whereas considering research and development maturity and cost prediction of the potential technology adopted, it can be found that coal power and coal chemical enterprises in China's western region have an early opportunity. Three sub-modules of CO 2 -EWR technology including CO 2 storage in deep saline aquifer, saline water extraction and desalination as well as brine resources utilization are analyzed from a prospective of energy conservation, carbon emission reduction and environmental friendship. Through detailed analyses, it can be concluded that CO 2 -EWR technology can be absolutely considered as a clean technology for environmental improvement and green development, and finally development direction and future prospective of the CO 2 -EWR technology are pointed out. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) has been viewed as an emission abatement option with great potential in China as coal has dominated China's energy consumption. China has already started to pay attention to CCS, as well as to the proposed the concept of ‘CCUS’ (which adds CO 2 Utilization into the chain of capture, transportation and storage). However, CCS is still in the early stages of its technological development, and the high cost, with several internal and external uncertainties make the role that CCS can play in China's future emission reduction unclear. From the perspective of general equilibrium analysis, this paper introduces CCS into a regional energy–economy–environment integrated assessment model, and makes a comprehensive evaluation of CCS's potential for future development and contribution to emission abatement in China. At climate policy level, the potential contribution of CCS in emission abatement has been evaluated against different future emission constraint scenarios in China. At technological level, the effects of endogenous learning and policy incentives on CCS have been investigated, and the substitution capacities of CCS and Non-hydro renewables to fossil energy have been discussed, as well as their technology penetration rates. Furthermore, the impact of CO 2 utilization on the development of CCS has also been discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Currently, there are considerable discrepancies between China's central government and some local governments in attitudes towards coal to liquids (CTL) technology. Energy return on investment (EROI) analysis of CTL could provide new insights that may help solve this dilemma. Unfortunately, there has been little research on this topic; this paper therefore analyses the EROI of China's Shenhua Group Direct Coal Liquefaction (DCL) project, currently the only DCL commercial project in the world. The inclusion or omission of internal energy and by-products is controversial. The results show that the EROIstnd without by-product and with internal energy is 0.68-0.81; the EROIstnd (the standard EROI) without by-product and without internal energy is 3.70-5.53; the EROIstnd with by-product and with internal energy is 0.76-0.90; the EROIstnd with by-product and without internal energy is 4.13-6.14. Furthermore, it is necessary to consider carbon capture and storage (CCS) as a means to control the CO2 emissions. Considering the added energy inputs of CCS at the plant level, the EROIs decrease to 0.65-0.77, 2.87-3.97, 0.72-0.85, and 3.20-4.40, respectively. The extremely low, even negative, net energy, which may be due to high investments in infrastructure and low conversion efficiency, suggests CTL is not a good choice to replace conventional energy sources, and thus, Chinese government should be prudent when developing it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

CCS (CO 2 capture and storage) technology provides technical support for low-carbon hydrogen production from coal. This study evaluates the carbon footprint and cost of coal-based hydrogen production with and without CCS in China by introducing provincial coal prices and electricity prices, as well as the life cycle greenhouse gas emission factor for consumed electricity. The results show that the carbon footprint of coal to hydrogen is reduced by 52.34%–74.59% to 4.92–10.90 CO 2 eq/kg H 2 after installing CCS technology, which is close to that of solar electricity-based hydrogen production. In addition, CCS increases the cost by 44.59%–60.84% to 1.44–2.11 USD/kg H 2 , but it does not deprive the cost advantage of hydrogen production from coal over renewable electricity-based hydrogen production. Therefore, China should promote the development of coal to hydrogen with CCS to meet the growing demand for hydrogen, at least before there is a breakthrough in hydrogen production from renewable electricity. West China may be the preferred option for future new coal to hydrogen plants, where the cost of coal to hydrogen with CCS is lower than that of other regions. Of course, other complex factors, such as the regional distribution of demand, must be considered to truly determine the site. In addition, coal-to-hydrogen plants in Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang and Shaanxi Provinces, with low hydrogen production costs, strong carbon constraints and low CCS costs, should be the priority option for early CCS projects in China. • The carbon footprint of coal to hydrogen without CCS is 19.37–22.87 CO 2 eq/kg H 2. • CCS technology can reduce the carbon footprint by 52.34%–74.59%. • The cost of coal to hydrogen without CCS is 0.90–1.46 USD/kg H 2. • The installation of CCS will increase the cost by 44.59%–60.84%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although there are some review papers on carbon capture, utilization and storage (CCUS), hardly any of these reviews are focused on the role of CO 2 enhanced oil recovery (EOR) in accelerating carbon neutrality in China. In this review, strategies to achieve carbon neutrality is briefly but critically discussed, followed by a review of CO 2 -EOR as a promising technology. Especially, data analysis, including the number of publications on China's carbon neutrality, per capita CO 2 emissions, China's power generation, and the crude oil production of China's large oilfields, is carried out to make the discussion more comprehensive. Given the large amount of coal consumed in China, the high percent of electricity generated with coal, and the slow penetration of renewables already observed, it seems unlikely that 2060 targets will be met without CCUS. In order to achieve carbon neutrality, both reduction in carbon emissions and increase in carbon sequestration are inevitable. Furthermore, it is concluded that CO 2 storage through EOR is likely to have a bright future. However, there are some critical issues to be solved, including the technical issues, leakage and safety issues, cost issues, policy issues, etc. In order to turn CO 2 -EOR into a reliable and more favorable technology, more research and efforts are needed to solve these issues, including advancing carbon capture technologies, improving storage technologies, developing effective monitoring technologies, deploying government support and incentive policies, etc. • CO 2 emission reduction and sequestration are needed to achieve carbon neutrality. • Carbon capture and storage without utilization is not suitable for China. • CO 2 -enhanced oil recovery (EOR) is more viable as a cost-effective CCUS technology. • CO 2 -EOR is likely to make great contributions to China's carbon neutrality target. • CO 2 leakage risk exists and more research is needed to ensure CO 2 is safely stored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is a key technology for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. But a CCS facility consumes vast amounts of energy and capital. With this in mind we analyze macroeconomic consequences of a large scale introduction of CCS in China. We modify and extend the DRC-CGE, a macroeconomic CGE model of the country that is used for long-term planning and policy analyses. We analyze an internal finance scenario of domestic funding, and an external finance scenario of international funding. In the external finance scenario CCS is installed on 70 % of all power plants by 2050. This increases demand for coal in 2050 by one fifth and import of coal by one fourth. The strain on coal resources may be an important political concern for China. In the internal finance scenario coal resources are not strained since this scenario introduces a price on carbon that lifts prices of energy. Moreover, the price on carbon cuts across the board and the internal finance scenario is much more effective at reducing $$\hbox {CO}_{2}$$ . On the other hand, in this scenario GDP goes down about 4 %, which also raises political concern. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose -- The purpose of this paper mainly is to examine the relevant rules concerning documentary letter of credit (L/C) fraud under criminal law in England and China. Design/methodology/approachThe paper analyses the regulations about such crime and relevant literature. Findings -- The similarities and differences of such rules have been identified briefly. L/C fraud is considered a conduct crime; and unspecific or vague provisions concerning this crime may cause difficulties of application in judicial practice in both England and China. But the possible punishment for L/C fraud criminals under Chinese criminal law seems more severe than that under English law. Dealing with L/C fraud in international trade under national criminal laws is not effective. Regional and international efforts on legal assistance in cross-border criminal cases still remain to be improved. Research limitations/implications -- The limitation is that it examines merely relevant substantial rules in legislation. This opens the paths to future research on the approach towards L/C fraud demonstrated in court cases in England and in China. Social implications -- The research underlies the need to take serious attitude and make more effective efforts towards cross-border criminal cases, although different countries may have different rules concerning specific economic crimes. Originality/value -- This paper fills the gap of a comparative study on how L/C is regulated under criminal law regime in England and China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Optimal planning of power industry considering carbon mitigation for a long-term future is complex, involving many technical alternatives and infinite possible plants installations, retrofitting, and decommissions. Previously the authors built a multi-period superstructure optimization planning model of China''s power sector, gaining the optimal pathway of China''s power sector with fixed parametric input during 2010–2050. With that model, this paper attempted to optimize pathway of China''s power sector under uncertainty, in which the most influential parameters were uncertain. A levelized optimal pathway of China''s power sector was gained, reliability of which was verified by comparing it with optimal results for the stochastic samples. The levelized optimal pathway showed that in the presence of carbon tax, carbon emissions of the power sector were reduced significantly by developing low-carbon technologies including nuclear power, renewables, as well as carbon capture and sequestration (CCS), and CCS would be key to reduce carbon emissions from coal power. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) is an important option for CO2 mitigation and an optimized CO2 pipeline transport system is necessary for large scale CCS implementation. In the present work, a hydrodynamic model for CO2 pipeline transport was built up and the hydrodynamic performances of CO2 pipeline as well as the impacts of multiple factors on pressure drop behavior along the pipeline were studied. Based on the model, an economic model was established to optimize the CO2 pipeline transport system economically and to evaluate the unit transport cost of CO2 pipeline in China. The hydrodynamic model results show that pipe diameter, soil temperature, and pipeline elevation change have significant influence on the pressure drop behavior of CO2 in the pipeline. The design of pipeline system, including pipeline diameter and number of boosters etc., was optimized to achieve a lowest unit CO2 transport cost. In regarding to the unit cost, when the transport flow rate and distance are between 1–5MtCO2/year and 100–500km, respectively, the unit CO2 transport cost mainly lies between 0.1–0.6RMB/(tCO2 km) and electricity consumption cost of the pipeline inlet compressor was found to take more than 60% of the total cost. The present work provides reference for CO2 transport pipeline design and for feasibility evaluation of potential CCS projects in China. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: A great challenge China''s power sector faces is to mitigate its carbon dioxide emissions while satisfying the ever-increasing power demand. Optimal planning of the power sector with consideration of carbon mitigation for a long-term future remains a complex task, involving many technical alternatives and an infinite number of possible plants installations, retrofitting, and decommissioning over the planning horizon. This paper presents a multi-period modelling and optimization framework for the optimal planning of China''s power sector between 2010 and 2050. The planning horizon is divided into several time intervals, over which power plants of all types can be installed, retrofitted, or closed. Impacts of carbon mitigation related measures, including carbon cap and price, application of carbon capture and sequestration, are explicitly represented. A case study follows, based on real-life data of existing capacity of China''s power sector in 2009, and a year-by-year development plan for China''s power sector is proposed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: An integrated carbon dioxide (CO2) capture and storage (CCS) system requires safe and cost-efficient solutions for transportation of the CO2 from the capturing facility to the location of storage. While growing efforts in China are underway to understand CO2 capture and storage, comparatively less attention has been paid to CO2 transportation issues. Also, to the best of our knowledge, there are no publicly available China-specific cost models for CO2 pipeline transportation that have been published in peer-reviewed journals. This paper has been developed to determine a first-order estimate of China''s cost of onshore CO2 pipeline transportation. An engineering-economic model based on China-specific data, codes, and standards to the greatest extent possible has been developed for this purpose. Based on the model, five illustrative case studies on pipelines for transporting captured CO2 from typical Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) and Ultra-supercritical (USC) generating units of 250 megawatt (MW), 400MW, 660MW, 1000MW, and 2× 1000MW are carried out. The results show the capital costs of constructing a 100-kilometers (km) pipeline are between $18 million and $102 million, depending on the amount of CO2 transported. Corresponding figures for the levelized costs are $1.84–$3.06 per tonne of CO2. Sensitivity analyses are also performed examining the effect of pipeline length and soil temperature on pipeline diameter, as well as flow rate and capital cost on levelized cost. The pipeline length is found to impact the diameter significantly, whereas soil temperature demonstrates insensitivity to pipeline diameter. Both flow rate and capital cost have significant effects on levelized cost. Comparison to other existing models based on either North American or European data implies a major cost difference between developed countries and China: China''s cost of onshore CO2 pipeline transportation is very likely much lower than those estimated in the developed countries. For a 0.02MtCO2/d case, for example, the levelized cost of CO2 transportation in China is about two-thirds that of the developed countries. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: We present results of a major survey of Chinese opinion leaders conducted from March to April 2009, supported by EU–UK–China near zero emissions coal (NZEC) initiative. Respondents were drawn from 27 provinces and regions using an online survey with follow-up face-to-face interviews. A total of 131 experts and decision-makers from 68 key institutions were consulted through online survey. This survey is the first to focus on demonstration projects in particular and is the most geographically diverse. We aim to understand perceptions of applying CCS technologies in the first large-scale CCS demonstration project in China. Though enhanced oil recovery (EOR) and enhanced coal bed methane recovery (ECBM) may not be long-term solutions for CO2 storage, they were viewed as the most attractive storage technologies for the first CCS demonstration project. With regard to CO2 capture technology, on the whole, post-combustion (which would be most applicable to the vast majority of existing power plants which are pulverised-coal) received slightly higher support than pre-combustion. More surprising, respondents from both the power and oil industries favoured pre-combustion. There was no consensus regarding the appropriate scale for the first demonstration. A large number of respondents were concerned about the energy penalty associated with CCS and its impact on the long-term sustainability of coal supply in China, although such concerns were much reduced compared with surveys in 2006 and 2008. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: China is the world''s largest carbon dioxide (CO2) emitter and its energy system is dominated by coal. For China to dramatically reduce its greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions over the next few decades, it must either replace most of its uses of coal with energy supplies from renewables and nuclear power or install demonstration-size and then scaled-up carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies. Currently, China is pushing ahead with increased investment in renewables and nuclear power and with demonstration CCS projects. This strategy is consistent with a country that seeks to be ready in case global pressures prompt it to launch an aggressive GHG reduction effort while also not going so fast that it reduces the likelihood of receiving substantial financial support from wealthier countries, as it feels it is entitled to as a developing country. At such a time, given the magnitude of the coal resource in China, and the country''s lack of other energy resources, it is likely the Chinese will make a substantial effort to develop CCS before taking the much more difficult step of trying to phase-out almost all use of coal in the span of just a few decades in a country that is so dependent on this domestically abundant and economically affordable resource. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The storage potential of selected sites within the Bahaiwan Basin was evaluated, the storage capacity estimated and the selection criteria considered for the COACH project. This paper examines the two methods used during the project for calculation of the storage capacity in the Shengli oilfield complex within the Bahaiwan Basin. Both methodologies were used to quantify the potential CO2 storage capacity of the depleted oil hydrocarbon reservoirs of the Shengli oilfield complex. They can both be considered as “simple” equation models which try to capture an “approximation” of a possible storage capacity. Nevertheless, between these models several differences exist. The CSLF methodology works with replacement of oil, gas or formation water, but does not incorporate dissolution of CO2 in formation water. The EOR methodology of CUPB developed from methodology of Tanaka et al. on the other hand includes dissolution of CO2 into the formation water, but does not consider the time period needed for the dissolution. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: A consensus for the development of a low carbon economy in China is growing rapidly among Chinese energy stakeholders. But there is considerable uncertainty as to the role that carbon capture and storage (CCS) retrofit could play in this development. The State Council in China has set a target of cutting carbon dioxide emissions per unit of GDP by 40% by 2020 compared with the level for 2005. Although this provides some policy impetus for reducing carbon dioxide emissions in China, it is also important to note that over 350 GW of coal-fired power plant capacity has been built within the past five years and that these power plants are expected to operate for at least another 25 years. Because coal is an affordable and accessible fuel in China, both the China Electricity Council (CEC) and the International Energy Agency (IEA) estimates that another 300 GW of supercritical and ultra-supercritical new coalfired power plants will be constructed in the next decade to satisfy the growing energy demand of the country . But unless other options to reduce emissions can be implemented, a simple consideration of the emissions they produce suggests that some of these recently built power plants may be required to shut down within the next two decades to address Chinese and/or international climate policies. During the past five years, the national policy of ‘closing smaller and/or inefficient units to build large and more efficient units’ has been implemented not only to save energy, but also to reduce specific carbon dioxide emissions (i.e. reduced gCO2/kWh of electricity produced). Forcing early plant closure has, however, proved to be a difficult task under the institutional framework of the Chinese electricity sector, because these plants usually had not reached the end of their design lifetimes. Also it was only partially successful in the context of CO2 reduction in the sense that companies wanted to build large plants to increase electrical output and strict rules meant they could only do this by closing a specified amount of older plant. But the end result was still that more coal was burnt and hence total CO2 emissions to atmosphere increased. Retrofitting some of the existing power plants to capture CO2, which by contrast can achieve an absolute decrease in CO2 emissions to atmosphere for an analogous loss in plant output (to the closures previously enforced) is therefore, an important option to address the threat of climate change while maintaining in the meantime the country’s electricity supply from coal. A preliminary investigation of over 100 large power plants in China was conducted to determine their potential for a retrofit with CO2 capture, transport and storage. Factors assessed included geographic location, space on site, plant layout, water restriction, coal supply, efficiency, FGD status and potential access to storage sites. Based on these criteria, retrofitting prospects were evaluated and rated. It appears that about 45% of existing power plants may suffer from ‘carbon lock-in’ status, i.e. their emissions could not be abated using CCS technology, at least at ‘reasonable’ cost. Critical factors that would preclude capture retrofit are, not surprisingly, access to storage sites and unsuitable plant layout and/or space on site. Variations in other factors would affect the level of retrofitting cost, but this effect could be positive as well as negative. In principle, plants would be retrofitted in an order that reflects the extent to which these site specific factors would give higher or lower retrofit costs. The results aim to provide an overview of the potential issues that need to be considered by stakeholders, policy makers and manufacturing companies when deciding the market potential for CCS retrofit technology in China. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper discusses the current status of CCS in China, providing an update of current projects and past activities in research and development, and a brief overview of prospects for CCS deployment in China. CCS related research in China has been building from a focus on research and development and exploration of the technical considerations o f CCS potential in China in coordination with international partners. While large scale demonstration of integrated CCS projects is still at an early stage, there is significant knowledge and technical expertise that can be derived from ongoing pilot projects. These projects employ various mature technologies that may be integrated and scaled to facilitate demonstration and deployment of CCS in the future. In addition, China is increasingly exploring opportunities in CO2 utilization to drive and support deployment of CCS–this is also known as CO2 capture, utilization and storage (CCUS). This paper provides information on some of these key activities, including details of specific projects and a background of the regulatory and policy frameworks and international cooperation on CCS and CCUS in China. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is widely accepted as one of main solutions to mitigate global warming in the world. However, the still-high cost of CCS is one of the major concerns, in particular in developing China. In the other hand, emission control of H2S and SO2 has already become the urgent need, and the reduction target has been set in the 11th Five-Year Plan of China. Therefore, co-storage of CO2+SO2 or CO2+H2S may be an effective way to reduce CCS cost, e.g. due to saving the de-sulphur device, and enable CCS to has an earlier deployment opportunity. In this paper, we try to, at first, reveal some key problems, i.e., trapping mechanism, injectivity and leakage risk, for co-injection and co-storage of CO2 and the strong acid SO2 into subsurface spaces in a certain gas field in China. The output of this gas field includes about 6.8% H2S and 4.6% CO2. Then, we want to insight into the possibilities and potentials of co-storage of CO2+SO2 by numerical studies. After widely referring all opened and published scientifical and technical literature, we develop a model to study a porous media system associated with the thermo-hydro-chemical coupling interactions. The hydrogeology and mineralogy of the injected formation are extracted from the historical materials of the gas field. We have performed several numerical simulations with consideration of a sandstone-clay sequence under acid-gas injection conditions. The clay formation is supposed as a sealed cap rock for the co-storage disposal system. The study examines the impact of SO2 co-injection on the pH of formation brine. Co-injection of CO2 with SO2 results in a larger and more strongly acidified zone, and alteration differs substantially from that caused by the injection of CO2 alone. The mineral alteration induced by injection of CO2 with SO2 leads to corresponding changes in porosity. Significant increases in porosity occur in the acidified zones where mineral dissolution dominates. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In China polygeneration from coal via gasification is seen as a promising technology that responds to the issues of security of energy supply and climate change. However, the implementation of coal-gasification schemes is still hampered with a comparatively low operational availability, and the relative cost imposed by polygeneration is deemed high. First, the capital expenses become higher due to the more comprehensive processing scheme including oxygen production. Second, the inclusion of CCS will affect the operating cost owing to additional staff and reduced revenues, as there will be less electricity to sell. Third, the maintenance cost tends to grow due to increased complexity. A new virtual IGCC-CCS 1 [1] I.e. integrated gasification combined cycle with CCS. power cycle has been defined, which forms the base case for benchmarking. A reference case has been formed using the prestigious Chinese GreenGen project (phase 1) as model. The two cases are based with identical gasifiers as the core component. In contrast to the reference case using a gas turbine fuelled with syngas and without CO2 capture, the virtual power cycle is made up using a generic hydrogen-burning gas turbine subsequent to an integrated gas separation unit in which CO2 is removed (jointly with H2S). Hence, the two cases have been benchmarked in order to assess the impact of CO2 capture on cost–notably without the inclusion of polygeneration, despite that polygeneration was part of the study (with hydrogen, ammonia, methanol and DME as co-products additional to electric power). The importance of this work is to assess techno-economic gaps in order to identify areas to address in order to improve process schemes towards an elevated stage of maturity. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The Well-to-Meter (WTM) analysis module in the Tsinghua-CA3EM model has been used to examine the primary fossil energy consumption (PFEC) and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for electricity generation and supply in China. The results show that (1) the WTM PFEC and GHG emission intensities for the 2007 Chinese electricity mix are 3.247MJ/MJ and 297.688g carbon dioxide of equivalent (gCO2, e )/MJ, respectively; (2) power generation is the main contributing sub-stage; (3) the coal-power pathway is the only major contributor of PFEC (96.23%) and GHG emissions (97.08%) in the 2007 mix; and (4) GHG emissions intensity in 2020 will be reduced to 220.470gCO2, e /MJ with the development of nuclear and renewable energy and to 169.014gCO2, e /MJ if carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) technology is employed. It is concluded that (1) the current high levels of PFEC and GHG emission for electricity in China are largely due to the dominant role of coal in the power-generation sector and the relatively low efficiencies during all the sub-stages from resource extraction to final energy consumption and (2) the development of nuclear and renewable energy as well as low carbon technologies such as CCS can significantly reduce GHG emissions from electricity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Making new plants CO2 capture ready (CCR) would enable them to retrofit to capture CO2 at a later date at lower cost when the appropriate policy and/or economic drivers are in place. In order to understand the economic value and investment characteristics of making new plants CCR in China, a typical 600MW pulverised coal-fired ultra-supercritical power plant, locating in Guangdong province, was examined. Combined with an engineering assessment, costs were estimated for different CCR scenarios. To analyze CCR investment opportunities, the paper applies a cash flow model for valuing capture options and CCR investment. Results were obtained by Monte-Carlo simulation, based on engineering surveys and an IEA GHG CCR study, as well as plant performance information and expert projections on carbon prices, coal prices and electricity prices. CCR investments are justified by factors such as higher retrofitting probabilities, lower early closure probabilities and fair economic return. However, the economic case for CCR largely depends on two factors: (a) whether the original plant is retrofittable without CCR; and (b) the type of investments made, for example, investments essential to CCR tend to be more economic than additional non-essential CCR features such as clutched low pressure turbines. The carbon price and discount rate were found to have significant impacts on the economics of CCR. Overall, it appears that the value of the ‘capture options’ that CCR generates for retrofitting CCS is significant, and so could justify a modest CCR investment, even assuming the original plant is retrofittable without CCR. It was also found the value of CCR might be significantly understated if the range of potential retrofitting dates is artificially constrained. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In collaboration with several Chinese institutions, we interviewed over 100 stakeholders in mid -2008 to improve our understanding of the drivers and the barriers to deploying CCS in China. We investigated a range of stak eholders’ perceptions with regard to the socio -economic impacts, environmental concerns, energy security and international cooperation and investment. In addition to general questions applicable to all stakeholders, we asked tailored qu estions appropriate to specific sectors such as finance, electricity generation and national and local government for more detailed responses. We explored the factors that may create an enabling environment for CCS including international and domestic incentives, financing me chanisms, the legal and regulatory framework, technology and IPR, baseline determination, and social acceptance. The overall results are compared with similar studies conducted in China in 2006 and internationally. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: China has built at least 70 GW of new coal- fired power installed capacity annually since 2005 and the growth is expected to continue (CEC, 2008). Chinese government, industry and academic stakeholders perceive that China will not mandate new plants to be built with carbon dioxide capture and storage systems in the short term and there is little incentive even to contemplate the first steps needed to fit plants with capture equipment [Reiner, D., Liang, X., Sun, X., Zhu, Y., Li, D., 2007. Stakeholder attitudes towards carbon dioxide capture and storage technologies in China, International Climate Change Conference, Hong Kong, May 29–31 2007]. We investigate the value of making new plants CO2 Capture Ready (CCR), which would enable them to retrofit to capture CO2 without unnecessary additional costs when the appropriate policy and /or economic drivers are in place (IEA, 2007). In order to understand the value and investment characteristics of CCR in China, a typical 600 MW pulverized-coal -fired ultra-supercritical power plant, locating at Guangdong province, was examined. Combined with a detailed engineering assessment, we obtained the costs for different CCR scenarios. To analyze CCR investment opportunities, we apply a cash flow model for valuing Capture Options, as developed in [Liang, X., Reiner, D., Gibbins J., Li J., 2007. Fianncing CCR coal-fired power plants in China by issuing capture options, EPRG Working Paper Series, EPRG0728, Cambridge, December. Available at: www.electricitypolicy.org.uk/pubs/wp/eprg0728.pdf]. Results are obtained by Monte-Carlo simulation, based on engineering surveys and the IEA (2007) CCR study, as well as plant performance information and expert projections on carbon prices, coal prices and electricity prices. CCR investments are justified by factors such as higher retrofitting probabilities, lower early-closure probabilities and fair economic return. However, the economic case for CCR largely depends on the type of investments made, for example, CCR-essential investments tend to be more economic than additional non-essential CCR features such as CCR Essential with clutched low-pressure turbines. Carbon price, coal price and discount rate also were found to have significant impacts on the economics of CCR. Overall, it appears that the value of capture options are significant, and therefore clear retrofitting strategies would be valuable for any CCR investment. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Coal is China’s primary fuel for power generation and will almost certainly remain so for the foreseeable future. China had an installed power generation capacity of a little over 700GWe in 2007, which is projected to nearly double within the next 20 years. NZEC (Near Zero Emission Coal) is a major Sino-British initiative on carbon capture and storage. One of its key aims is to complete the work required to construct a coal-fired power generation plant in China with CCS. The first phase of NZEC is a feasibility study, due to complete in late 2009, in which options for CCS in China are being explored. As part of the feasibility study, an energy systems analysis using the China MARKAL model is being undertaken to provide a perspective on the energy technologies that may be deployed in China to meet its energy needs. The energy situation in China is being analysed, with a detailed investigation undertaken of the various technologies and fuels employed at present. Based on growth forecasts and national plans for China, predictions will be made of the technologies and fuels that may be deployed to meet its future needs. The role of coal and the various technology options for utilising that coal will be identified. An estimate of the CO2 emissions arising from the utilisation of coal and the potential impact of their release to the atmosphere will be made. The potential for CCS to reduce CO2 emissions to the atmosphere, and the cost and impact of deploying CCS will be examined. In this paper, the authors will provide a progress review of this analysis and present provisional results. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Coal is central to China’s continued economic growth and CCS is one of the most promising technological solutions to curb the CO2 emitted from the continued use of coal. This paper introduces some areas of recent R&D on CCS in China and focuses, in particular, on the Near Zero Emission Coal (NZEC) project, a China-UK CCS initiative. NZEC is being undertaken in three phases, with the current project comprising the first phase. The ultimate aim of NZEC, following Phase 3, is to have constructed and operated a coal-fired power plant with integral CCS in China. In this paper, some of the early progress made in NZEC Phase 1 is described. Launched in November 2007, the objectives of Phase 1 are to build confidence in CCS and to explore technology options for demonstrating coal-fired power generation with CCS in China. The Phase 1 partnership of nine leading UK organisations and 20 from China demonstrates the strong collaborative working relationship that exists between China and the UK, at all levels, to develop CCS as a key climate change mitigation technology. Apart from NZEC, China is involved in several national and international CCS initiatives and some of these will be touched upon in this paper. The success of the 18-month first phase will, to a large extent, be measured against its contribution to increasing CCS capacity in China and against strengthened links between Chinese and British experts. Activities designed to raise capacity are described. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The UK-China Near Zero Emissions Coal project was officially launched on 20th November 2007 in Beijing and will run until June 2009. The objectives of the project are to: [•] Enable knowledge transfer between Chinese and UK parties (academic, industrial and other) [•] Model the future energy requirements of China, taking CCS technology into account. [•] Produce case studies of potential carbon dioxide capture technologies. [•] Build capacity in China for evaluation of storage potential for CO2 and perform first stage characterisations for selection of sites suitable for CO2 storage. [•] Develop a technical and policy level roadmap for CCS. The capture and transport theme in the NZEC project has fourteen Chinese and overseas partners undertaking ten different capture plant case studies and an overview of CO2 transport in China. The range of coal applications in China means that a number of different approaches may be required, depending on the circumstances. All major types of CCS capture options are being examined: oxyfuel as a new build and a retrofit installation, post-combustion capture using conventional and advanced technologies and gasification with pre-combustion capture for dedicated IGCC and for polygeneration plants. Details of the case studies to be undertaken are presented, with a discussion of key issues in the unique conditions of the Chinese electricity supply market. A comprehensive set of underlying ‘ground rules’ for the studies in the Chinese context will also be described. These will be related to standard conditions used for other studies, e.g. IEA GHG capture technology assessments, and their effects on equivalent plant performance will be estimated to provide ‘correction factors’ for the results of published studies when similar technologies are transferred into the Chinese context. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• The largest full chain demonstration project of CCS on coal-fired power plant is constructed in China. • An advanced integrated process of inter-cooling, rich solution split process and Mechanical Vapor Recompression flashing (MVR flashing) were designed to reduce the energy penalty, which can save about 20% of energy. • The modified plastic packing was used in the full chain demonstration project of 150 000 tons CO2/year. • Through the optimization and programmed control of the drying unit, the desiccant can be regenerated in-site and operate continuously. Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) is essential to achieve global cumulative CO 2 reductions to meet the two degree scenario in 2050. To accelerate the development of CCS technology in China, the biggest full chain demonstration project is under construction in Guoneng Jinjie Power plant. This facility is designed to capture 150,000 tons of CO 2 per year from coal fired PC boiler flue gas for EOR. The advanced amine absorbents combined with the integrated processes such as inter-cooling, rich solution split process and Mechanical Vapor Recompression flashing (MVR flashing) were used to reduce the energy penalty and operating costs. The system can attain following parameters including the CO 2 capture rate>90%, captured CO 2 purity>99% and regeneration energy penalty <2.4GJ/tCO 2. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• CO 2 transport and storage costs vary regionally. • Key variabilities are distance, scale, monitoring, geology, and pipeline costs. • We find CO 2 transport and storage costs range from $4 to 45/tCO 2. • CCS deployment is more sensitive to transport and storage costs in some regions. • More analysis is needed to quantify transport and storage costs at regional level. This paper assesses the range of CO 2 transport and storage costs and evaluates their impact on economy-wide modeling results of decarbonization pathways. Much analytic work has been dedicated to evaluating the cost and performance of various CO 2 capture technologies, but less attention has been paid to evaluating the cost of CO 2 transport and storage. Many integrated assessment modeling studies assume a combined cost for CO 2 transport and storage that is uniform in all regions, commonly estimated at $10/tCO 2. Realistically, the cost of CO 2 transport and storage is not fixed at $10/tCO 2 and varies across geographic, geologic, and institutional settings. We surveyed the literature to identify key sources of variability in transport and storage costs and developed a method to quantify and incorporate these elements into a cost range. We find that onshore pipeline transport and storage costs vary from $4 to 45/tCO 2 depending on key sources of variability including transport distance, scale (i.e. quantity of CO 2 transported and stored), monitoring assumptions, reservoir geology, and transport cost variability such as pipeline capital costs. Using the MIT Economic Projection and Policy Analysis (EPPA) model, we examined the impact of variability in transport and storage costs by applying a range of uniform costs in all regions in a future where global temperature rise is limited to 2°C. We then developed three modeling cases where transport and storage costs vary regionally. In these latter cases, global cumulative CO 2 captured and stored through 2100 ranges from 290 to 377 Gt CO 2 , compared to 425 Gt CO 2 when costs are assumed to be uniformly $10/t CO 2 in all regions. We conclude that the widely used assumption of $10/tCO 2 for the transport and storage of CO 2 is reasonable in some regions, but not in others. Moreover, CCS deployment is more sensitive to transport and storage costs in some regions than others, particularly China. More analysis is needed to further quantify CO 2 transport and storage costs at a regional level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Industrial decision-makers may wonder about the optimal timing for investing in carbon capture retrofitting in co-firing power plants, faced with uncertain benefits from upcoming China's carbon trading market and potential cost reductions derived from technology innovation. The decision on investment timing relates to the so-called waiting value, considering multiple uncertainties and trade-offs. This article applies a real options-based framework, adapted to deal with the waiting value in the context of multiple uncertainties of carbon market, technical improvements and biomass availability. The problem is solved through an efficient simulation method. The results suggest that the optimal retrofit timing for CCS (carbon capture and storage) in a co-firing CHP will be the year 2033 considering a basic scenario, in which the carbon price is 98 CNY/tonCO 2 (14.5 US$/tonCO 2) in 2025, the growth rate and volatility are 5% and 7% respectively, and technical improvements are expected every six years and result in a cost reduction of 50%. In addition, we examine the effects of different sub-dimensions in the carbon market and technical improvement on anticipating the retrofit timing. The conclusions of this article provide decision-makers with strategies of adjusting the investment timing in response to their different expectations of market and technology developments. Further practical applications require judgments of future trends made by decision-makers and extensive data of specific cases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]