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Abstract: Pollen, macrofossil and charcoal analyses of a peat record from the Cordón Serrucho Norte mountain range east of the Andes in northern Patagonia (41°46′5″S, 71°25′13″W) provide vegetation and fire histories for the last 17,500calyrBP. The site is very distinctive as two rainforest conifers, Fitzroya cupressoides and Pilgerodendron uviferum, grow on the wetland with the more xeric Austrocedrus chilensis on the adjacent slopes, posing the question of how far back in time these Cupressaceae taxa co-occurred at the site. Late glacial regional vegetation changed from a pioneer herbaceous steppe to grass-dominated steppe at 16,500calyrBP and to closed Nothofagus forest by 15,200calyrBP, reflecting a two-step increase in precipitation. A shift to open forest and high fire frequency between 11,200 and 7000calyrBP is a consistent feature throughout northern Patagonia, indicating variable precipitation and seasonal drought. Between 7000 and 3000calyrBP, Nothofagus forest expanded again, fire frequency decreased and a Sphagnum magellanicum bog developed, replacing the Cyperaceae wetland, indicating year-round moisture. Present-day mixed Nothofagus dombeyi–A. chilensis forest developed after 3000calyrBP when fire frequency was again high. High precipitation variability in the late Holocene is most likely related to the onset of strengthening of ENSO. Our data, including stomata and wood analyses, do not unequivocally identify the age of co-existence of the three Cupressaceae taxa in the region. However, inferred moisture conditions, combined with genetic and dendroclimatic studies on Fitzroya and Pilgerodendron, suggest that this wetland site could have offered suitable habitat for these rainforest taxa during the last 17,500years, while the initial steppe environments and surrounding rocky and steep slopes could have provided adequate conditions for Austrocedrus. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Understanding temporal and spatial trends in pregnancy and birth outcomes within an urban area is important for the monitoring of health indicators of a population. We conducted a retrospective cohort study of all births in the public hospital of Temuco, a medium-sized city in Southern Chile between 2009 and 2016 (n = 17,237). Information on adverse pregnancy and birth outcomes, as well as spatial and maternal characteristics (insurance type, employment, smoking, age, and overweight/obesity), was collected from medical charts. Home addresses were geocoded and assigned to neighborhood. We tested whether births and prevalence of adverse pregnancy outcomes changed over time, whether birth events were spatially clustered (Moran's I statistic), and whether neighborhood deprivation was correlated to outcomes (Spearman's rho). We observed decreases in eclampsia, hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, and small for gestational age, while gestational diabetes, preterm birth, and low birth weight increased over the study period (all p < 0.01 for trend), with little changes after adjusting for maternal characteristics. We observed neighborhood clusters for birth rate, preterm birth, and low birth weight. Neighborhood deprivation was negatively correlated with low birth weight and preterm birth, but not correlated with eclampsia, preeclampsia, hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, small for gestational age, gestational diabetes, nor stillbirth. Several encouraging downward trends and some increases in adverse pregnancy and birth outcomes, which, overall, were not explained by changes in maternal characteristics were observed. Identified clusters of higher adverse birth outcomes may be used to evaluate preventive health coverage in this setting., (© 2023. The New York Academy of Medicine.)

Background: Several studies showed that early exposure to pesticides affects the development and health of children. In Maule, there is previous evidence of the high exposure to organophosphate pesticides (OP) of schoolchildren. However, to date, there are no studies assessing exposure to pyrethroids and the herbicide 2,4-D. Objetive. To evaluate children's exposure to pyrethroids insecticides 3-phenoxybenzoic acid (3-PBA), trans 3-(2,2-dichlorovinyl)-2,2-dimethylcyclopropane carboxylic acid (trans-DCCA) and 2,4 dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) herbicides., Method: Longitudinal study with 48 schoolchildren from two rural schools in the Maule region, Chile. Urinary metabolites of pyrethroids 3-PBA, Trans-DCCA and 2,4-D herbicides were evaluated in 2016 and 2017. Mann-Whitney U for repeated measurements and Spearman's rho correlation tests were used for data analysis. Also, we used a system of impulsive differential equations for mathematical modeling., Results: All the schoolchildren assessed had more than two pesticide urinary metabolites in both years, with the 3-PBA metabolite being the most frequent. There was an increase in concentrations of urinary 3-PBA in November 2017, compared to 2016 (from 0.69 μg/L to 1.90 μg/L). In 2016, the specific metabolites of 3-PBA were correlated with Trans-DCCA, 2,4-D, chlorpyrifos, diazinon, and para-nitrophenol. In 2017, 3-PBA was correlated with 2,4-D, and Trans-DCCA. The concentrations of 3-PBA of Chilean children were higher than studies conducted in the USA that found an association of prenatal exposure to these metabolites with cognitive difficulties., Conclusions: We found high concentrations of pyrethroid metabolites among all the schoolchildren assessed, which may impact on their health and development. These insecticides had received no attention from the scientific community in Chile, and neither from the government agencies, despite the increased use of these chemicals in recent years. This is the first study in South America that confirms the exposure to pyrethroids and herbicides through biomarkers in human population living near farm fields., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Financial disclosure All authors have no financial interest in disclosing this article., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: Exposure to lead and arsenic has been associated with child behavior problems. In Arica, a northern city of Chile, the natural presence of arsenic in water has been registered. Also, the city has a history of heavy metals contamination of anthropogenic origin. The purpose of this study was to explore the association between the concentration of blood lead and urinary inorganic arsenic with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) as reported by parents., Methods: Cross-sectional design with data analysis of 2656 children between the ages of 3 and 17 enrolled at the Environmental Health Center of Arica between 2009 and 2015. The diagnosis of ADHD was made based on the parents' response to questions about health history. Multiple logistic regression models were used to adjust for confounding variables., Results: The prevalence of ADHD was 6.4%. The means urinary inorganic arsenic and blood lead were 21 μg/L and 1.5 μg/dl, respectively. In the lead model adjusted for sex, age, housing material quality and exposure to secondhand tobacco smoke report; children with blood lead concentrations ≥5 μg/dl were more likely to develop ADHD [Odds Ratio (OR): 2.33 95% confidence intervals (CI) 1.32-4.12)]. Regarding arsenic, the adjusted model revealed a higher chance of developing ADHD in the fifth quintile of exposure (OR = 2.02 IC 95% 1.12-3.61)., Conclusion: The findings of this study suggest that exposure of children to lead and inorganic arsenic was associated with ADHD. This study provides additional evidence to existing literature regarding the potential role of toxic metals such as lead and arsenic in children's behavior. However, our findings should be interpreted with caution due to the limitations of the study., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

Background: Organophosphate (OP) pesticides can be hazardous to human health if not applied with appropriate precautions. There is evidence in the Maule region of Chile that rural schoolchildren are exposed to OP pesticides., Objective: To evaluate the effectiveness of an educational intervention on OP exposure and understanding of pesticides and their hazards (risk perception) in two school communities in the Maule Region of Chile during 2016., Method: We conducted a quasi-experimental study about the effects on OP pesticide exposure of a community outreach and education program (COEP) administered in four 2-h sessions that's included hands-on activities among 48 schoolchildren from two rural schools. The intervention was directed to groups of parents and school-children separately, and aimed to educate them about the risks of exposure to pesticides and their effects on health. We measured 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol (TCPy), 2-isopropyl-4-methyl-6-hydroxypyrimidine (IMPY), malathion dicarboxylic acid (MDA), p-nitrophenol (PNP), specific urinary metabolites of the OP pesticides chlorpyrifos, diazinon, malathion and parathion, respectively, as well as the non-specific diethylakylphosphates (DEAPs) and dimethylalkylphosphates (DMAPs) in 192 urine samples of schoolchildren collected before and after the intervention. The risk perception of school children and their parents was also assessed through a questionnaire before and after the intervention. Generalized Estimated Equations were used to account for each child's repeated measures during four sessions, two in September 2016 (pre-intervention) and two in November 2016 (post-intervention)., Results: The intervention level had significant effect on the risk perception of adults and children, which increased after the intervention. However, the intervention was not associated with reduced of urinary metabolites levels, with no significant differences between the pre and post measures. The detection frequencies were 1.1% (MDA), 71.4% (TCPy), 43.3% (IMPY), 98.96% (PNP), and 100% (DEAPs and DMAPs). Higher DEAPs urine concentrations were associated with eating more fruit at school (p = 0.03), a younger age (p = 0.03), and being male (p = 0.01). DMAPs showed no associations with potential predictor variables (e.g. OPs applied at home, fruit consumption at school, among others). Higher TCPy was associated with attending a school closer to farms (p = 0.04) and living in a home closer to farm fields (p = 0.01); higher PNP was marginally associated with children younger age (p = 0.035)., Conclusion: Environmental exposure to OP pesticides was unchanged even after behavior changes. It is possible that a longer time period is needed to observe changes in both behavior and urinary metabolites. The levels of DEP and DMP metabolites found here are above the reference population of the US, and our findings indicate exposure to a wide variety of OP pesticides. Given that individual-level interventions were not associated with lower exposures, efforts to reduce exposure must occur upstream and require stricter regulation and control of pesticide use by government agencies., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: In animal models, gestational exposure to inorganic arsenic has been associated with higher corticosterone concentration and consequent impairment of stress control in offspring. An equivalent association relating cortisol, a glucocorticoid hormone, in humans has not been previously studied., Objective: The aim of the study was to explore the association between prenatal inorganic arsenic exposure and salivary cortisol in infants from Arica, Chile., Material and Methods: A cohort study of 168 mother-child dyads was recruited. In the 2nd trimester of pregnancy, urinary inorganic arsenic was assessed; 18-24 months after delivery, salivary cortisol was measured in the children. Maternal cortisol, maternal depression, stress, and socio-economic status were also evaluated., Results: The adjusted association was estimated with multiple linear regression after evaluating confounding through a directed acyclic graph. Median urinary inorganic arsenic in pregnant women was 14.1 µg/L (IQR: 10.4-21.7) while salivary cortisol in the children was 0.17 µg/L (IQR: 0.11-0.38). Among children from the highest income families (> 614 USD/month), arsenic exposure was associated with salivary cortisol. Children in the third quartile of arsenic exposure had -0.769 units of the logarithm of salivary cortiso, compared with those in the first quartile (p = 0.045)., Conclusions: In this sample, prenatal exposure to arsenic was associated with salivary cortisol (third quartile of inorganic arsenic), only in infants belonging the highest income strata (> 614 USD). More studies are needed to confirm these preliminary results.

The aim was to evaluate the reliability and validity of a questionnaire to assess organophosphate pesticide (OP) exposure in agricultural workers. We then enrolled a random sample of 114 agricultural workers from the region of Maule, Chile (mean age = 50 years [SD = 12]). An internal consistency analysis (Cronbach's alpha> 0.70) and a Varimax rotational factorial analysis were applied. The instrument had a high reliability to predict likely occupational pesticide exposures: Cronbach's alpha = 0.95, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure was 0.90 and the Bartell sphericity test = p < 0.001. Four factors explaining 68% of the variance were extracted. The factors identified were as follows: (1) labor conditions during application of OPs; (2) use of personal protective equipment; (3) workplace conditions related to OP exposure and (4) home conditions related to OP exposure. The questionnaire has adequate metric properties to characterize likely OP exposure of agricultural workers and to explore associated working and home conditions.

Background: Allergic rhinoconjunctivitis (ARC) has a prevalence of 30% in industrialized countries. For an accurate diagnosis and treatment, it is crucial to identify the causative aeroallergen., Aim: To evaluate aeroallergen sensitization in adults with ARC in the city of Temuco, Chile., Patients and Methods: A skin test against the main aeroallergens present in Temuco was carried out in patients aged 15 to 64 years with ARC diagnosed by medical examination and the Score For Allergic Rhinitis., Results: At least one aeroallergen sensitization was present in 234 (62.4%) out of 375 patients. Pollen-sensitized patients were positive mainly for Grasses (44.4%), Plantago (27.8%), Cynodon (26.1%), Sorrel (23.5%), Birch (14.9%), Nothofagus obliqua (13.3%) and Alder (11.1%). Dust mites were the most common non-pollinic sensitizing aeroallergens, including Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus (70.1%) and Dermatophagoides farinae (62.8%)., Conclusions: According to our results, skin tests in the city of Temuco should include at least dust mites, pollens of Grasses, Plantago, Cynodon, Sorrel, Birch, Nothofagus obliqua and Alder, because these allergens account for 93% of ARC cases in this city.

Introduction: The association of total arsenic exposure with impaired glucose tolerance and gestational diabetes has been shown; however, evidence regarding urinary inorganic arsenic in pregnant women is still limited. Our aim was to evaluate the association between urinary inorganic arsenic concentration and gestational diabetes among pregnant women living in Arica, Chile. Methods: Cross-sectional study of pregnant women receiving care at primary health centers in urban Arica. The exposure was urinary inorganic arsenic concentration, while gestational diabetes was the outcome. The association was evaluated using multiple logistic regression models adjusted by age, education level, ethnicity, and pre-pregnancy body mass index. Results: 244 pregnant women were surveyed. The median urinary inorganic arsenic was 14.95 &mu;g/L, and the prevalence of gestational diabetes was 8.6%. After adjusting, we did not find a significant association between gestational diabetes and inorganic arsenic exposure tertiles (Odds ratio (OR) 2.98, 95% CI = 0.87⁻10.18), (OR 1.07, 95% CI = 0.26⁻4.33). Conclusion: This study did not provide evidence on the relationship between urinary inorganic arsenic concentration and gestational diabetes. Further research is needed to elucidate the factors underlying this association.

The territory of Chile is particularly long and narrow, which combined with its mountainous terrain, makes it a unique scenario for human genetic studies. We obtained 995 control region mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences from Chileans representing populations living at different latitudes of the country from the North to the southernmost region. The majority of the mtDNA profiles are of Native American origin (∼88%). The remaining haplotypes are mostly of recent European origin (∼11%), and only a minor proportion is of recent African ancestry (∼1%). While these proportions are relatively uniform across the country, more structured patterns of diversity emerge when examining the variation from a phylogeographic perspective. For instance, haplogroup A2 reaches ∼9% in the North, and its frequency decreases gradually to ∼1% in the southernmost populations, while the frequency of haplogroup D (sub-haplogroups D1 and D4) follows the opposite pattern: 36% in the southernmost region, gradually decreasing to 21% in the North. Furthermore, there are remarkable signatures of founder effects in specific sub-clades of Native American (e.g. haplogroups D1j and D4p) and European (e.g. haplogroups T2b3 and K1a4a1a+195) ancestry. We conclude that the magnitude of the latitudinal differences observed in the patterns of mtDNA variation might be relevant in forensic casework., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Forest/steppe boundaries are among the most dynamic ecosystems on Earth and are highly vulnerable to changes in climate and land use. In this study we examine the postglacial history of the Patagonian forest/steppe ecotone (41-43°S) to better understand its sensitivity to past variations in climate, disturbance, and human activity before European colonization. We present regional trends in vegetation and biomass burning, as detected by generalized additive models fitted to seven pollen and charcoal records, and compare the results with other paleoenvironmental data, as well as archeological and ecological information to (i) estimate postglacial fire trends at regional scales, (ii) assess the evolution of climate-vegetation-fire linkages over the last 18,000 calibrated (cal) years B.P., and (iii) evaluate the role of humans in altering pre-European landscapes and fire regimes. Pollen and charcoal data indicate that biomass burning was relatively low during warm/dry steppe-dominated landscapes in the late glacial/Early Holocene transition and increased as more humid conditions favored forest development after ca. 10,000 cal years B.P. Postglacial fire activity was thus limited by fuel availability associated with sparse vegetation cover rather than by suitable climate conditions. In contrast to extensive burning by European settlers, variations in indigenous population densities were not associated with fluctuations in regional or watershed-scale fire occurrence, suggesting that climate-vegetation-fire linkages in northern Patagonia evolved with minimal or very localized human influences before European settlement.

Objective: To describe pesticide concentrations in distinct environmental matrices at two time points (low and high seasons in local agricultural production) and to estimate the association between the presence of pesticide residues in matrices and the use of pesticides in the home with the sociodemographic variables of schoolchildren in the Province of Talca, Chile., Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted in 190 schoolchildren. Families were surveyed about their children's vegetable consumption in school and at home, the use of pesticides in the home, and other sociodemographic variables. Additionally, we measured pesticide residues in vegetables and water consumed by the schoolchildren and in the soil of 14 schools., Results: At both time points, the vegetable matrix had the highest pesticide concentration, both in urban and rural schoolchildren. The most common pesticide residues in vegetables were chlorpyrifos, diphenylamine, pyrimethanil, and thiabendazole. In the home, pyrethroid and organophosphate pesticides were mainly used in summer. Dangerous pesticide residues such as azinphos methyl and dimethoate were found in vegetables consumed by the children in schools and households, and organochlorines were found in the soil in some schools., Conclusions: Pesticide exposure should be limited and the health effects related to pesticide exposure should be assessed in the school population., (Copyright © 2013 SESPAS. Published by Elsevier Espana. All rights reserved.)

This study assesses the degree of impairment of children's IQ scores due to exposure to lead from a storage site. In 2005, we studied 192 children in Antofagasta, Chile, age 7-16 years who had been exposed to a lead storage site from birth until its removal in 1998. We used past (1998) and current (2005) blood lead levels as explanatory variables for IQ, which was measured once in 2005 using the WISC-r test. Multilevel mixed-effects linear regression models were constructed, adjusting for potential confounders. Current blood lead level (BPb, 2005) was associated with a significant decrease in full-scale IQ (P value = 0.03), whereas blood lead level measured in 1998 (BPb, 1998) showed an inverse but not significant association with full-scale IQ (P value = 0.35). The findings provide evidence that exposure to an open source of environmental lead can exert an effect on IQ. Policy efforts should be targeted to prevent lead exposure to avoid children's intellectual impairment.

Objective: To compare air nicotine concentrations according to the smoking policy selected by bars/restaurants in Santiago, Chile before and after the enactment of partial smoking ban legislation in 2007 (establishments could be smoke free, have segregated (mixed) smoking and non-smoking areas, or allow smoking in all areas)., Methods: The study measured air nicotine concentrations over 7 days to characterise secondhand smoke exposure in 30 bars/restaurants in 2008. Owner/manager interviews and physical inspections were conducted., Results: Median IQR air nicotine concentrations measured in all venues were 4.38 (0.61-13.62) μg/m(3). Air nicotine concentrations were higher in bars (median 7.22, IQR 2.48-15.64 μg/m(3)) compared to restaurants (1.12, 0.15-9.22 μg/m(3)). By smoking status, nicotine concentrations were higher in smoking venues (13.46, 5.31-16.87 μg/m(3)), followed by smoking areas in mixed venues (9.22, 5.09-14.90 μg/m(3)) and non-smoking areas in mixed venues (0.99, 0.19-1.27 μg/m(3)). Air nicotine concentrations were markedly lower in smoke-free venues (0.12, 0.11-0.46 μg/m(3)). After adjustment for differences in volume and ventilation, air nicotine concentrations were 3.2, 35.5 and 56.2 times higher in non-smoking areas in mixed venues, smoking areas in mixed venues and smoking venues, respectively, compared to smoke-free venues., Conclusions: Exposure to secondhand smoke remains high in bars and restaurants in Santiago, Chile. These findings demonstrate that the partial smoking ban legislation enacted in Chile in 2007 provides no protection to employees working in those venues. Enacting a comprehensive smoke-free legislation which protects all people from exposure to secondhand smoke in all public places and workplaces is urgently needed.

Background: Secondhand smoke (SHS) is an established cause of morbidity and mortality among non-smokers. The workplace is an important source of exposure, especially among workers of restaurants, bars and nightclubs., Aim: To estimate the daily occupational exposure to SHS among non-smoking workers of bars and restaurants of Santiago, Chile., Material and Methods: Environmental vapor-phase nicotine was measured for 95 non-smoking workers of bars and restaurants of Santiago, using passive personal samplers during a daily work shift and outside the workplace., Results: The median occupational exposure to air nicotine was 9.18 µg/m³ (P25-P75 3.15-25.67 µg/m³). Higher concentrations were found among workers of places with no smoking restrictions (22.72 µg/m³; P25-P75 5.73-34.85 µg/m³), bar workers (20.75 µg/m³, P25-P75 5.03-44.67 µg/m³), waiters (20.57 µg/m³, PP25-P75 5.66-42.73 µg/m3) and bartenders (10.37 µg/m³, P25-P75 9.75-25.67 µg/m³). The median concentration of nicotine outside the workplace was 1.79 µg/m³ (P25-P75 1.02-3.00 µg/m³). Occupational exposure was 4.77 times higher compared to the non-work exposure., Conclusions: Workers of bars and restaurants are exposed to high levels of SHS at the workplace. Moreover, occupational exposure among these non-smoking workers is, in most cases, the main source of daily exposure to this pollutant.

Objective: To assess the relationship between early tobacco and alcohol use and the risk of marijuana consumption among schoolchildren., Methods: A cross-sectional study comprising data from the Fourth National Study on Drug Use in the Chilean School Population (2001). There were studied 54,001 schoolchildren aged between eight and 20 years. Predictors were self-reported tobacco and alcohol use (ever users), age at initiation of tobacco and/or alcohol use, and intensity of tobacco use. The study outcome was self-reported marijuana use (ever users versus never users) and age at initiation of marijuana use. Poisson regression and Weibull regression were used for data analysis., Results: Lifetime prevalence of tobacco use was high: 77%, alcohol 79%, and marijuana 23%. Tobacco consumption increased the likelihood of marijuana use (PR=10.4; 95% CI: 8.9;12.2). Later initiation of tobacco (HR=0.85; 95% CI: 0.84;0.86) and alcohol (HR=0.90; 95% CI: 0.89;0.91) decreased the risk of marijuana use. Marijuana use was higher in heavy smokers compared to light smokers (PR=3.11; 95% CI: 2.96;3.26 versus PR=1.70; 95% CI: 1.58;1.83)., Conclusions: Tobacco use is strongly associated with marijuana use, which is significantly associated with the age at initiation of tobacco use, intensity of tobacco use and concurrent use of alcohol. Prevention strategies should target prevention of adolescent early tobacco use.