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The growth and competitiveness of any business, especially micro and SMEs, will increasingly depend on the ability to apply new knowledge, organisation and working methods, as well as the capacity to engage in the commercialisation of research and development to develop new products, services, or processes. In the information society, the development of new products, services, and processes requires the use of innovations resulting from the intellectual activity of creative people. For creators and successors in title of intellectual property rights (various projects, trademarks, inventions, computer programs, etc.) to be able to successfully develop and market their products, they need a functioning IPR protection system. The research found that it is essential for the company to acquire the rights to the works created during the employment contract, and it would be necessary to reasonably limit the author's right to withdraw the work created during the employment relationship.

Orphan works are works that are still protected by copyright and whose owners cannot be identified or located by prospective users for copyright clearance. Many countries have addressed this issue since the emergence of the problem, and it remains a legitimate subject of inquiry in this present day. However, Malaysia is yet to initiate public consultations and formulate legislative and non-legislative solutions to the orphan work problem. Hence, this paper aspires to underline the challenges and obstacles in exploiting the orphan works in Malaysia. It starts with a brief introduction to the orphan works problem and its causes. It further highlights the legal and policy uncertainties about the orphan work phenomenon in Malaysia and its implication to higher learning education. Besides, this paper also examines the current practices in the United Kingdom and Canada. Finally, this paper proposes some suggestions into what Parliament and policymakers have to do and avoid when solving Malaysia's orphan work phenomenon. It is hoped that the access to the orphan works in Malaysia would not be problematised, thereby liberating them from the copyright orphanage.

There is a dearth of research that examines legal literacy among pre-service teachers in Canada. Pre-service teachers' legal literacy refers to the knowledge level that teacher candidates in teacher education programs have with respect to educational law and policy and how it affects their preparation for entering the teaching profession. This article presents findings from an exploratory mixed-methods study that examined teacher candidates' (n=1731) reflections that detail observations of and experiences with legal issues while on practicum placements in a teacher education program in one southeastern Ontario university during three academic years. We identify teacher candidates' most frequently cited aspects of school law and policy, analyze teacher candidates' awareness of school laws and policies pertaining to those aspects, and explore their perceived preparedness to deal with legal issues occurring in their practicum placements. We conclude with a discussion of findings and research implications for teacher education programs.

This study analyses the patenting activities of university science and engineering professors in Canada between 1920 and 1975. Unlike most studies on commercial activities in academia, which typically focus on the post-1980 period and on university practices, we focus on the pre-1980 period and on the individual decisions of professors to patent their inventions. Based on quantitative patent data, we show that patenting, and thus professors' interest in the possible commercial value of their scientific discoveries made in university laboratories, was relatively common on an individual and informal basis well before the 1980s and the advent of what is now called "academic capitalism". This contradicts the belief that before that period, universities were a kind of ivory towers in which professors isolated themselves from external influences and engaged only in pure and disinterested research.

This paper focuses on the meaning of education for reconciliation in the context of Canadian settler-colonialism. It captures an attempt to delve into the meaning of reconciliation as an experiential process, through learning on the land with the Tahltan People. We focus on reconciliation not as a theory or political discourse, but rather as a meeting point of theory and experience. We identify and discuss four main components of education for reconciliation: Land as educator, Indigenous knowledge and pedagogy, reciprocity, and sovereignty. We argue for the need to shift from superficial and theoretical discourses of reconciliation in the classrooms to deep engagement with Indigenous knowledge and ways of living on the land.

While the text-matching tool, Turnitin®, has traditionally been used to deter and detect plagiarism, more recently, instructors have started to use this tool for formative self-assessment. To describe Turnitin®'s use in practice and to explore perceptions of this tool, we surveyed 940 students, teaching assistants, and instructors at a Canadian university. Our findings indicate that Turnitin® was more commonly used for plagiarism detection than for formative self-assessment. The majority of respondents had positive views of Turnitin®, and 70% of students stated that they had no concerns about using this tool. Despite these positive findings, content analysis of open-ended responses indicate that students experience increased anxiety of being falsely accused of plagiarism and have concerns about their work being stored in the Turnitin® database. Our findings lead us to conclude that there is a need for more information and improved communication about Turnitin® for all three groups.

Since their creation, community colleges have had a mandate to be responsive to their communities, often through relationships with local business. As globalization and technological advancements increase pressure on small businesses (SMEs), the role of colleges in helping these SMEs to innovate in order to survive becomes clearer. Relationships between colleges and SMEs, however, are often balked by a number of barriers as perceived by individuals within the college system. This paper begins to examine the relationship between these entities through a series of interviews with individuals within the Manitoba community college system. An analysis of these conversations reveals seven distinct categories of perceived barriers.

College faculty teaching in the health professions work within a unionized, neoliberal system designed to produce competent graduates trained to work in the health care hierarchy. The workers trained include community care assistants, two levels of nurses (practical nurses and baccalaureate nurses, the latter in collaboration with university nursing programs), personal support workers, medical laboratory technologists, paramedics, pharmacy technicians, dental hygienists and assistants, massage therapists, and so on. Academic freedom, a concept held close to the hearts of their university counterparts, is not a term uttered with frequency nor an implicit understanding of many college faculty. This paper explores this phenomenon, examining the conditions under which Canada's health professionals teach and construct health care curricula in public colleges. Interviews with faculty were undertaken by the first author as part of a master's thesis and in a separate project by the second author as part of a larger national study of college faculty (with Diane Meaghan). Interviews with health professional faculty mainly in Ontario explored relationships between faculty and college administration, as well as faculty perceptions of other organizations such as licensing boards influencing the daily work of constructing and teaching health care curricula. The results indicate that college faculty do have concerns regarding academic freedom, with their frustrations and fears expressed in terms of a divide between faculty and local college administration. These concerns are seen as sometimes challenging their ability to ensure the quality of graduates, as well as compromising their rights as faculty and their commitments to their profession and to their own professionalism. More specifically, faculty worried about curtailment of their freedom to design curricula and have access to appropriate resources; and to set grading standards, and in some cases, grades, in the face of relentless "student success" policies. We conclude with speculation about the future of college "academic freedom" as some colleges and programs strengthen their links with universities.

Social networking tools offer opportunities for innovative, participative pedagogical practice within traditional institutional frameworks. However, tensions continue to develop within this space: between creativity and security, personal and professional identity, privacy and openness. We argue that iSchools are uniquely positioned to create proactive, adaptive policies guiding the pedagogical use of social media and offer initial recommendations toward the crafting of such policies. If we expect information school graduates to be proficient and critical users of perpetually evolving social media technologies, we need to create learning environments that support the ethical, reflective and effective use of these tools. As an initial step in that direction, we report on three explorations we conducted to identify the challenges and opportunities that are part of today's educational social media landscape. Informed by these investigations we put forward initial guidelines for developing a "Social Media & the iSchool Classroom" policy for other schools to appropriate, modify and enhance.

In this study, researchers surveyed academic librarians about their open access publishing practices. This analysis explores approaches to journal selection, awareness of open access options, and self-archiving practices. Fifty percent of the librarians in this study considered free open access when selecting a potential journal for publication, but a journal's fit to the topic and peer review were higher priorities. Findings indicate that, although many librarians publish in open access journals or take advantage of institutional repositories, there are still barriers to publishing in open access journals, including article processing charges, the tenure and promotion culture, and uncertainty around intellectual property rights.

The Grammar Gang blog has now passed its fourth anniversary as a borderless, non-proprietary language and learning online classroom. It gives wing to the aspirations of academic staff from four universities to explore language and learning across hemispheres. The Blog's recent birthday provides a timely opportunity to explore how this collaboration takes place and some possible ways to extend language, learning and academic support services. The Grammar Gang is an online classroom where people around the world can learn and explore their interest in language in a fun, conversational way. It is also a borderless classroom which queries the notion of institutional "ownership" in its traditional sense. Further, it opens wide the debate around the rights and wrongs of English language expression and learning. Four members of the Grammar Gang examine the implications of this digital collaboration in this context by addressing the ways in which the blog is used and some of the thinking within the literature around global English and institutional ownership of knowledge. The Grammar Gang continues to be an "adventure across the hemispheres" providing a model for others to follow.

Educational technologists might well describe online distance education as "a series of instructional events over the Internet that find their expression as learning events in a student". As a legal construct however, "online distance education" is simply "the intellectual property of its owner". This description is too simplistic for educational technologists, however for two reasons. First, there can be no such thing as "typical intellectual property ownership in online distance education", because there is no such thing as "the typical distance education course". No single law or appellate court decision can adequately protect at once the online course and the blended course, or the stand-alone course and the Web course management system. A second, related reason why intellectual property ownership is too simplistic is that most of today's online courses have multiple creators, each creator making a different original contribution to the course, each contribution being afforded a different type of legal protection within a jurisdiction. Ownership complexity rises with the number of contributors as well as the different types of legal protection available in the jurisdiction. This paper attempts to reconcile ongoing political rhetoric over everyone's right to an education with recent leaks in the media about the increasing likelihood of a global lock-down of intellectual property that could criminalize contemporary online distance education for every user.

Growing interest in university-industry collaboration (UIC) calls for a need to develop frameworks and compare overseas models to better understand how successful UIC occurs. This article provides a framework for analyzing UIC across three dimensions: environmental, technical, and managerial. It further breaks down these dimensions to suggest key attributes that can inform us about how dimensions can develop and improve. Subsequently, we use the framework outlined to analyze seven countries' UIC policies and frameworks and present key findings. The findings of this research include the importance of building and training a workforce ready to engage across sectors and of creating clear intellectual property policies, and the need for dedicated programs and national policies that support UIC growth.

Universities are just beginning to experience the impact of the increasing use of online technologies on academic policies and procedures originally formulated for the traditional face-to-face teaching context. In this case study, the experience of one university is used to demonstrate the types of policies that require examination and modification as well as the areas in which new policies may be required. Examples of policies and issues that are common to most universities are examined, and include instructor responsibilities and workload, course evaluation, grading and evaluation of students, privacy and records, copyright clearance of third-party materials, and ownership of intellectual property. The review suggests that the work involved in policy updating in a changing environment can be challenging but it is important that direction be provided at both the micro and macro policy levels. The work involved in addressing policy issues, even at the micro level, can range from the relatively simple tasks of providing clearer wording to changes requiring collective bargaining. (Contains 3 notes.)

Issues of copyright infringement are contentious for academia in the online environment. The educational community on campus must carefully consider how digital materials are used, created and disseminated online given that present laws that regulate these actions are not well developed. It can seem like anyone's guess on how to proceed in order to avoid copyright infringement. This paper offers current descriptions of intellectual property, copyright laws, infringements, and plagiarism in a Canadian context with a view on creating, using and disseminating digital works. The impact of copyright infringement on students and faculty in higher education is explored and some suggestions are made for protective practice.

Following a pause, with a relatively flat rate, from 1998 to 2008, the long-term trend of university patenting rising as a share of all patenting has resumed, driven by the internationalization of academic entrepreneurship and the persistence of US university technology transfer. The authors disaggregate this recent growth in university patenting at the US Patent and Trademark Organization (USPTO) in terms of nations and patent classes. Foreign patenting in the United States almost doubled during the period 2009-2014, mainly due to patenting by universities in Taiwan, Korea, China and Japan. These nations compete with the United States in terms of patent portfolios, whereas most European countries--with the exception of the United Kingdom--have more specific portfolios, mainly in biomedical fields. In the case of China, Tsinghua University holds 63% of the university patents in USPTO; followed by King Fahd University with 55.2% of the national portfolio.

An important part of training the next generation of physicians is ensuring that they are exposed to the integral role that research plays in improving medical treatment. However, medical students often do not have sufficient time to be trained to carry out any projects in biomedical and clinical research. Many medical students also fail to understand and grasp translational research as an important concept today. In addition, since medical training is often an international affair whereby a medical student/resident/fellow will likely train in many different countries during his/her early training years, it is important to provide a learning environment whereby a young medical student experiences the unique challenges and value of an international educational experience. This article describes a program that bridges the gap between the basic and clinical research concepts in a unique international educational experience. After completing two semester curricula at Alfaisal University in Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, six medical students undertook a summer program at St. Boniface Hospital Research Centre, in Winnipeg, MB, Canada. The program lasted for 2 mo and addressed advanced training in basic science research topics in medicine such as cell isolation, functional assessment, and molecular techniques of analysis and manipulation as well as sessions on the conduct of clinical research trials, ethics, and intellectual property management. Programs such as these are essential to provide a base from which medical students can decide if research is an attractive career choice for them during their clinical practice in subsequent years. An innovative international summer research course for medical students is necessary to cater to the needs of the medical students in the 21st century. (Contains 4 tables.)

Since the 1980 passage of the US Bayh-Dole Act, academic technology transfer has gained profile globally as a key component of knowledge-driven economic development. Research universities are seen as key contributors. In this article, focusing on the USA and drawing on over twenty years of experience in the field of academic technology transfer in the USA and Canada, John Fraser, a former President of AUTM, the global association of academic technology transfer professionals, uses recently published statistics as a springboard for his perspective on the increasing economic and social importance of the commercialization of discoveries and innovations emanating from academic research. He looks in particular at trends in the means by which transfer is achieved and the search for new and more accurate ways of measuring its effectiveness and impact as well as the "success" of university technology licensing offices. (Contains 1 figure, 2 tables, and 10 notes.)

This study aims to develop a systematic patent training program using patent analysis and citation analysis techniques applied to patents held by the University of Saskatchewan. The results indicate that the target audience will be researchers in life sciences, and aggregated patent database searching and advanced search techniques should be included. (Contains 4 figures and 1 table.)

The Entrepreneurial University is a failed idea. This is not to disparage the entrepreneurial activities of faculty, graduates and students. Neither is it to criticise industry-sponsored research and co-authorship. University research and higher education have a role in innovation. However, if entrepreneurialism is institutionalised as a policy of governments and universities, all manner of things start to go wrong. Not only do participants suffer from disappointed expectations, as expected returns fail to materialise, but also, more importantly, universities that "go entrepreneurial" ultimately destroy the science commons essential to the university's continued existence. A systematic critique of the concept of the Entrepreneurial University is offered and key data is reviewed. Simultaneously, a broader research programme on university autonomy and finance is advanced. (Contains 5 notes.)

Technology licensing office managers often need to evaluate profitability and commercial potential in their decision making. However, increased consideration of important global public health goals requires forging new collaborative relationships, incorporating creative licensing practices and embracing global public good within the academic and research communities. The authors conducted a survey to identify and document opportunities and barriers in the management of discoveries and inventions arising from global health research outcomes at US and Canadian academic and research institutions. (Contains 5 tables and 4 notes.)

This paper analyses the intensification of university-industry relationships and its impact on university research. The paper consists of recent follow-up research to an international comparative research project conducted in the 1990s. It deals specifically with the Quebec (Canada) situation. Twenty-eight in-depth interviews were conducted in the winter of 2003 with university researchers and an additional five interviews with technology transfer officers. The interviews were conducted in six francophone higher education institutions in Quebec. With regard to university-industry relationships, the interviews revealed that university researchers in scientific and technological fields conducted innovation-oriented research, which benefits their graduate students and the institution itself. Freedom of publication is somewhat conditioned by intellectual property constraints. Thus, a majority of university researchers adopt an "entrepreneurial ethos" which they find compatible with their academic values. The intensification of university-industry relationships may also have latent dysfunctional effects with regard to conflicts of interest, as some university researchers have created start-up companies which act both as research funding sources and as beneficiaries of research results. Thus, intellectual property and conflict of interest issues evolve in a grey zone and are often sources of stress and tension for researchers. However harsh some disputes may become over these issues, they are resolved, at least in the context analysed in this research, in ways that satisfy both the researcher and the institutions.

Taking into account the historic transitions and progressions in agricultural science, this article examines the emergence of the phenomenon of agricultural biotechnology. It identifies pivotal sites of tension between agricultural biotechnology and alternative approaches to agriculture. The article identifies two distinct sources of contemporary social tension around agricultural science. First, it identifies the epistemological fault line and examines how the latter is promoted by intellectual property. Second, it spotlights the gene-wandering syndrome--a byproduct of genetic modification--and evaluates its impact on the escalating tension in our agricultural communities. Drawing from recent court decisions in Canada, the article recognizes the present urgency for a better jurisprudence and practical regulatory policy on aspects of agricultural biotechnology to mediate current tensions in those communities. It argues that judicial and policy response must be predicated on recognition of agro-epistemic pluralism and an understanding of broader socioeconomic impact of agro-biotechnology on alternative forms of agriculture. (Contains 27 notes.)

This article reads the educational implications of "intellectual property" that are found in the double meaning of "property", as the word refers to an economic right and a quality of being. It briefly visits the seventeenth-century origins of this double concept of intellectual property (IP), with particular attention paid to John Locke (who provides the basis of IP as a personal possession as well as furthering the idea of a "common-wealth of learning") and the emergence of "open science". The argument proceeds on two levels, educational and public, as it draws parallels between the way that students are taught to regard learning and the way in which a knowledge-based global economy treats learning. On the first level, that of the personal, the article puts forward a critique of the common educational tendency to treat learning as a private good, in terms of personal asset management, which ultimately undermines the common-wealth of learning and the idea of knowledge as a public good. On the second level, that of the public sphere, the article turns to the increasing privatization and capitalization of knowledge that is making inroads into the common-wealth of learning, particularly around publicly funded research and scholarship. The article considers the prospects, finally, of "open" responses (e.g. open access, open source, etc.) to reassert the vital role of the common-wealth, through new technologies of knowledge sharing, and it considers the educational policy implications of preparing a new generation of students who, as they are prepared to participate in knowledge-based economies, should also understand the implications of sustaining the common-wealth of learning. (Contains 3 figures and 33 notes.)

Rather than a public good that is freely shared, Canadian university research is increasingly privatized and commercialized and thus rendered accessible only to those who can pay for it. The effects include erosion of collegiality, institutional democracy, curiosity-driven basic research, objectivity, and consideration of disadvantaged groups. All stakeholders should be involved in a review of higher education research policy. (TD)

Traces the institutionalization of industry-liaison offices and commercialization of research in Canadian universities. Describes how the managers "capture the benefits" of discoveries generated by researchers, and identifies four major themes: intellectual property policy, culture conflict, boundary work, and the public good. Explores what is lost when capital is allowed to enter university culture in such a direct way. (EV)

Examines policies related to ownership or license of student-created intellectual property in Canadian universities and concludes that universities cannot claim ownership without significant legal issues. Presents recommendations to resolve difficulties. Contains 69 notes and 6 references. (JOW)

Employs a market perspective to explain why financial returns to college teaching and research are necessarily unequal. Research will receive greater rewards so long as its market reach is longer, research talent is in shorter supply, and the benefits of research can be partially appropriated by individual scholars. (Contains 13 references.) (MLH)

Brock University (Ontario); an Ontario television station; and the Iroquois, Ojibwa, and Metis Nations are collaborating on the development of an Aboriginal adult education degree program. The clan system was modified for use as a planning tool, elders and other Aboriginal educators were included, and Aboriginal learning styles and perspectives were incorporated into the curriculum. (TD)

Compares Canadian and American legislation on intellectual property and copyright. The possible impact of further choices in copyright law is discussed in terms of the availability of an alternative legal protection for information, breach of confidence, and its possible impact on the flow of information in Canada. (AEF)

Reviews the legislative history of Canadian copyright law, especially with respect to government documents. Briefly describes the British origins of Canadian copyright, the British North America Act (1867), and the Copyright Act of 1921, all of which serve as background to the current law. (111 references) (LAE)

The author argues economic analysis needs to be explicitly included in an overall theory of law and technology. Differing approaches to the economics of information are considered, and the copyright policy environment of the 1990s is taken as an example of how the lack of substantive economic analysis resulted in poor policy-making.

Addresses the impact of Canadian Copyright Bill C-60 on educators' and researchers' ability to reproduce materials for study. Explains that the Canadian Reprography Collective (CanCopy) was formed to provide easy legal public access to copyrighted material by issuing blanket licenses. Concludes that cooperation between creators, producers, and users of copyrighted material is the key to successful access. (GG)