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Background: Individuals experiencing socioeconomic inequity have worse health outcomes and face barriers to palliative and end-of-life care. There is a need to develop palliative care programs tailored to this underserved population. Objectives: To understand the characteristics and symptom profiles of a group of urban patients experiencing socioeconomic inequity and receiving palliative care. Design: Descriptive exploratory analysis of a patient dataset. The patient dataset was generated through a pilot research study with patients experiencing socioeconomic inequity and life-limiting illness who received a community-based palliative care intervention. Methods: The intervention took place over 1 year in the Palliative Care Outreach and Advocacy Team, a community-based urban palliative care clinic in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, serving persons experiencing socioeconomic inequity. Participants had to be at least 18 years of age, be able to communicate in English, require palliative care for a life-limiting illness, and be able to consent to inclusion in the study. Results: Twenty-five participants were enrolled. Participants predominantly identified as male and Indigenous, experienced poverty and housing instability, and had metastatic cancer. Our participants rated their pain, shortness of breath, and anxiety as more severe than the broader community-based palliative care population in the same city. Most patients died in inpatient hospices (73%). Conclusion: Our analysis provides an in-depth picture of an understudied, underserved population requiring palliative care. Given the higher symptom severity experienced by participants, our analysis highlights the importance of person-centered palliative care. We suggest that socioeconomic inequity should be considered in patients with life-limiting illnesses. Further research is needed to explore palliative care delivery to those facing socioeconomic inequity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: An extensive literature documents substantial variations in life expectancy (LE) between countries and at various levels of subnational geography. These variations in LE are significantly correlated with socioeconomic covariates, though no analyses have been produced at the finest feasible census tract (CT) level of geographic disaggregation in Canada or designed to compare Canada with the United States., Data and Methods: Abridged life tables for each CT where robust estimates were feasible were estimated comparably with U.S. data. Cross-tabulations and graphical visualizations are used to explore patterns of LE across Canada, for Canada's 15 largest cities, and for the 6 largest U.S. cities., Results: LE varies by as much as two decades across CTs in both countries' largest cities. There are notable differences in the strength of associations with socioeconomic status (SES) factors across Canada's largest cities, though these associations with income-poverty rates are noticeably weaker for Canada's largest cities than for the United States' largest cities., Interpretation: Small area geographic variations in LE signal major health inequalities. The association of CT-level LE with SES factors supports and extends similar findings across many studies. The variability in these associations within Canada and compared with those in the United States reinforces the importance for population health of better understanding differences in social structures and public policies not only at the national and provincial or state levels, but also within municipalities to better inform interventions to ameliorate health inequalities.

Objectives: This study modelled diabetes risk for population groups in Canada defined by socioeconomic and lifestyle characteristics and investigated inequities in diabetes risk using a validated population risk prediction algorithm., Methods: We defined population groups, informed by determinants of health frameworks. We applied the Diabetes Population Risk Tool (DPoRT) to 2017/2018 Canadian Community Health Survey data to predict 10-year diabetes risk and cases across population groups. We modelled a preventive intervention scenario to estimate reductions in diabetes for population groups and impacts on the inequity in diabetes risk across income and education., Results: The population group with at least one lifestyle and at least one socioeconomic/structural risk factor had the highest estimated 10-year diabetes risk and number of new cases. When an intervention with a 5% relative risk reduction was modelled for this population group, diabetes risk decreased by 0.5% (females) and 0.7% (males) and the inequity in diabetes risk across income and education levels was reduced., Conclusion: Preventative interventions that address socioeconomic and structural risk factors have potential to reduce inequities in diabetes risk and overall diabetes burden., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they do not have any conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2024 Lu, Kornas and Rosella.)

Objective: To compare life expectancy levels and within-country geographic variation in life expectancy across six high-income Anglophone countries between 1990 and 2018., Design: Demographic analysis using aggregated mortality data., Setting: Six high-income Anglophone countries (USA, UK, Canada, Australia, Ireland and New Zealand), by sex, including an analysis of subnational geographic inequality in mortality within each country., Population: Data come from the Human Mortality Database, the WHO Mortality Database and the vital statistics agencies of six high-income Anglophone countries., Main Outcome Measures: Life expectancy at birth and age 65; age and cause of death contributions to life expectancy differences between countries; index of dissimilarity for within-country geographic variation in mortality., Results: Among six high-income Anglophone countries, Australia is the clear best performer in life expectancy at birth, leading its peer countries by 1.26-3.95 years for women and by 0.97-4.88 years for men in 2018. While Australians experience lower mortality across the age range, most of their life expectancy advantage accrues between ages 45 and 84. Australia performs particularly well in terms of mortality from external causes (including drug- and alcohol-related deaths), screenable/treatable cancers, cardiovascular disease and influenza/pneumonia and other respiratory diseases compared with other countries. Considering life expectancy differences across geographic regions within each country, Australia tends to experience the lowest levels of inequality, while Ireland, New Zealand and the USA tend to experience the highest levels., Conclusions: Australia has achieved the highest life expectancy among Anglophone countries and tends to rank well in international comparisons of life expectancy overall. It serves as a potential model for lower-performing countries to follow to reduce premature mortality and inequalities in life expectancy., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2024. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

People experiencing homelessness have historically had high mortality rates compared to housed individuals in Canada, a trend believed to have become exacerbated during the COVID-19 pandemic. In this matched cohort study conducted in Toronto, Canada, we investigated all-cause mortality over a one-year period by following a random sample of people experiencing homelessness ( n  = 640) alongside matched housed ( n  = 6,400) and low-income housed ( n  = 6,400) individuals. Matching criteria included age, sex-assigned-at-birth, and Charlson comorbidity index. Data were sourced from the Ku-gaa-gii pimitizi-win cohort study and administrative databases from ICES. People experiencing homelessness had 2.7 deaths/100 person-years, compared to 0.7/100 person-years in both matched unexposed groups, representing an all-cause mortality unadjusted hazard ratio (uHR) of 3.7 (95% CI, 2.1-6.5). Younger homeless individuals had much higher uHRs than older groups (ages 25-44 years uHR 16.8 [95% CI 4.0-70.2]; ages 45-64 uHR 6.8 [95% CI 3.0-15.1]; ages 65+ uHR 0.35 [95% CI 0.1-2.6]). Homeless participants who died were, on average, 17 years younger than unexposed individuals. After adjusting for number of comorbidities and presence of mental health or substance use disorder, people experiencing homelessness still had more than twice the hazard of death (aHR 2.2 [95% CI 1.2-4.0]). Homelessness is an important risk factor for mortality; interventions to address this health disparity, such as increased focus on homelessness prevention, are urgently needed., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2024 Richard, Carter, Wu and Hwang.)

Background: Mental health disparity is associated with diverse characteristics, such as gender, socioeconomic status, Indigenous identity, immigrant status, race, disability, and sexual orientation. However, intersectional studies on women's mental health have been rare, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic period., Methods: Using data from two cycles of the Canadian Community Health Survey (2019 annual data and data from September to December 2020), self-reported mental health outcomes before the COVID-19 pandemic (sample size was 64,880) and during the second wave of the pandemic in the fall of 2020 (sample size of 27,246) were analyzed., Results: After sociodemographic factors were controlled for, women and girls had higher odds of poorer self-perceived mental health and worsened mental health compared with before the COVID-19 pandemic than men and boys. Compared with 2019, the gender gap in negative self-perceived mental health increased during the pandemic. The number and type of intersections of specific socioeconomic characteristics also had an impact on mental health outcomes. During the pandemic, women and girls with the following characteristics were more likely to report low self-perceived mental health, compared with women and girls with no intersections: those with a disability (7.8 times); or who are lesbian, gay, or bisexual or have another sexual orientation than heterosexual (5.6); or who are Indigenous (3.6)., Interpretation: The intersections of gender and other sociodemographic characteristics increased the odds of negative self-perceived mental health.

Background: Reducing health inequalities among older adults is crucial to ensuring healthy aging is within reach for all. The current study provides a timely update on demographic- and geographic-related inequalities in healthy aging among older adults residing in Canadian communities., Methods: Data was extracted from the Canadian Health Survey on Seniors [2019-2020] for ~6 million adults aged 65 years and older residing in 10 provinces of Canada. Healthy aging was defined by two indices: 1] health-related quality of life and 2] functional health. Poisson regression models and spatial mapping were used to demonstrate inequalities among age, race, and sex categories, and health regions., Results: Approximately 90.3% of individuals reported less than perfect quality of life and 18.8% reported less than perfect functional health. The prevalence of less than perfect quality of life was higher for females [PR 1.14, 95% CI;1.02-1.29] and for older adults aged ≥80 years as compared to males and older adults aged ≤79 years [PR 1.66, 95% CI;1.49-1.85]. Similarly, the prevalence of less than perfect functional health was higher for females [PR 1.58, 95% CI;1.32-1.89] and for older adults aged ≥80 years [PR 2.71, 95% CI;2.59-2.84]. Spatial mapping showed that regions of lower quality of life were concentrated in the Prairies and Western Ontario, whereas regions of higher quality of life were concentrated in Quebec., Conclusions: Amongst older individuals residing in Canadian communities, less than perfect quality of life and functional health is unequally distributed among females, older adults aged ≥80 years, and those residing in the Prairie regions specifically. Newer policy should focus on interventions targeted at these subpopulations to ensure that healthy aging in within reach for all Canadians., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (Copyright: © 2024 Singh et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)

Health inequalities amplified by the COVID-19 pandemic have disproportionately affected racialized and equity-deserving communities across Canada. In the Municipality of Peel, existing data, while limited, illustrates that individuals from racialized and equity-deserving communities continue to suffer, receive delayed care, and die prematurely. In response to these troubling statistics, grassroots community advocacy has called on health systems leaders in Peel to work with community and non-profit organizations to address the critical data and infrastructure gaps that hinder addressing the social determinants of health in the region. To support these advocacy efforts, we used a community-based participatory research approach to understand how we might build a data collection ecosystem across sectors, alongside community residents and service providers, to accurately capture the data about the social determinants of health. This approach involved developing a community engagement council, defining the problem with the community, mapping what data is actively collected and what is excluded, and understanding experiences of sociodemographic data collection from community members and service providers. Guided by community voices, our study focused on sociodemographic data collection in the primary care context and identified which service providers use and collect these data, how data are used in their work, the facilitators and barriers to data use and collection. Additionally, we gained insight into how sociodemographic data collection could be respectful, safe, and properly governed from the perspectives of community members. From this study, we identify a set of eight recommendations for sociodemographic data collection and highlight limitations. This foundational community-based work will inform future research in establishing data governance in partnership with diverse and equity-deserving communities., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Sexual and gender minorities (SGM) experience a number of health inequities. That social determinants of health drive these inequities is well-documented, but there is little evidence on the number and types of interventions across Canada that address these determinants for these populations. We conducted an environmental scan of programs in Canada that target SGM, and classified the programs based on their level of intervention (individual/interpersonal, institutional and structural). We found that few programs target women, mid-life adults, Indigenous people or ethnoracial minorities, recent immigrants and refugees, and minority language speakers, and few interventions operate at a structural level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Racial/ethnic disparities in the prevalence of psychiatric disorders have been reported, but have not accounted for the prevalence of the traits that underlie these disorders. Examining rates of diagnoses in relation to traits may yield a clearer understanding of the degree to which racial/ethnic minority youth in Canada differ in their access to care. We sought to examine differences in self/parent-reported rates of diagnoses for obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and anxiety disorders after adjusting for differences in trait levels between youth from three racial/ethnic groups: White, South Asian and East Asian., Method: We collected parent or self-reported ratings of OCD, ADHD and anxiety traits and diagnoses for 6- to 17-year-olds from a Canadian general population sample (Spit for Science). We examined racial/ethnic differences in trait levels and the odds of reporting a diagnosis using mixed-effects linear models and logistic regression models., Results: East Asian ( N  = 1301) and South Asian ( N  = 730) youth reported significantly higher levels of OCD and anxiety traits than White youth ( N  = 6896). East Asian and South Asian youth had significantly lower odds of reporting a diagnosis for OCD (odds ratio [ OR ] East Asian  = 0.08 [0.02, 0.41]; OR South Asian  = 0.05 [0.00, 0.81]), ADHD ( OR East Asian  = 0.27 [0.16, 0.45]; OR South Asian  = 0.09 [0.03, 0.30]) and anxiety ( OR East Asian  = 0.21 [0.11, 0.39]; OR South Asian  = 0.12 [0.05, 0.32]) than White youth after accounting for psychiatric trait levels., Conclusions: These results suggest a discrepancy between trait levels of OCD, ADHD and anxiety and rates of diagnoses for East Asian and South Asian youth. This discrepancy may be due to increased barriers for ethnically diverse youth to access mental health care. Efforts to understand and mitigate these barriers in Canada are needed., Competing Interests: Declaration of Conflicting InterestsThe author(s) declared the following potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: Andrew Dissanayake, Annie Dupuis, Christie L. Burton, Noam Soreni, Paul Peters, Jennifer Crosbie and Russell Schachar report no biomedical financial interests or potential conflicts of interest. Amy Gajari would like to disclose funding for research time by the O’Brien Fund at CAMH and by the Margaret and the Wallace McCain Centre for Child, Youth, and Family. She would also like to disclose a one-time speaking fee paid by Mathers, McHenry, and Co. for professional development training on working with clients with mental health difficulties. Paul D. Arnold would like to disclose grant support from Biohaven Pharmaceuticals unrelated to the topic of this manuscript.

Despite decades of social epidemiologic research, health inequities remain pervasive and ubiquitous in Canada and elsewhere. One reason may be our use of socioeconomic measurement, which has often relied on single point-in-time exposures. To explore the extent to which researchers have incorporated dynamic socioeconomic measurement into cardiovascular health outcome evaluations, we performed a narrative review. We estimated the prevalence of socioeconomic longitudinal cardiovascular research studies that identified socioeconomic exposures at 2 or more points in time between the years of 2019 and 2023. We defined cardiovascular outcome studies as those that examined coronary artery disease, myocardial infarction, acute coronary syndrome, stroke, heart failure, cardiac arrhythmias, cardiac death, cardiometabolic factors, transient ischemic attacks, peripheral artery disease, or hypertension. Socioeconomic exposures included individual income, neighbourhood income, intergenerational social mobility, education, occupation, insurance status, and economic security. Seven percent of socioeconomic cardiovascular outcome studies have measured socioeconomic status at 2 or more points in time throughout the follow-up period, hypothesized mechanisms by which dynamic socioeconomic measures affected outcome focused on social mobility, accumulation, and critical period theories. Insights, implications, and future directions are discussed, in which we highlight ways in which postal code data can be better used methodologically as a dynamic socioeconomic measure. Future research must incorporate dynamic socioeconomic measurement to better inform root causes, interventions, and health-system designs if health equity is to be improved., (Copyright © 2024 Canadian Cardiovascular Society. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Cardiovascular disease has been the leading cause of death in the United States and Canada for decades. Although it affects millions of people across a multitude of backgrounds, notable disparities in cardiovascular health are observed among women and become more apparent when accounting for race and socioeconomic status. Although intrinsic sex-specific physiologic differences predispose women to poorer outcomes, social determinants of health (SDOH) and biases at both the individual provider and the larger health care system levels play an equal, if not greater, role. This review examines socioeconomic disparities in women compared with men regarding cardiovascular risk factors, treatments, and outcomes. Although various at-risk subpopulations exist, we highlight the impact of SDOH in specific populations, including patients with disabilities, transgender persons, and South Asian and Indigenous populations. These groups are underrepresented in studies and experience poorer health outcomes owing to structural barriers to care. These findings emphasise the significance of understanding the interplay of different socioeconomic factors and how their stacking can negatively affect women's cardiovascular health. To address these disparities, we propose a multipronged approach to augment culturally sensitive and patient-centred care. This includes increased cardiovascular workforce diversity, inclusion of underrepresented populations into analyses of cardiovascular metrics, and greater utilisation of technology and telemedicine to improve access to health care. Achieving this goal will necessitate active participation from patients, health care administrators, physicians, and policy makers, and is imperative in closing the cardiovascular health gap for women over the coming decades., (Copyright © 2024 Canadian Cardiovascular Society. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Period poverty is the lack of access to menstrual products, sexual and reproductive health education, safe waste management, and adequate facilities. Despite its being a public health issue and a significant concern for numerous Canadians, there is a lack of peer-reviewed research on period poverty in Canada. Existing Canadian research has primarily been conducted by non-profit organizations/charities or industry leaders for menstrual products, resulting in incomplete data. More research is needed to explore the menstrual inequities in Canada and their impact on the well-being of Canadians. This is a critical step to ensure the menstrual needs of Canadians are appropriately addressed., (© 2024. The Author(s) under exclusive license to The Canadian Public Health Association.)

Objectives: Preconception health (PCH), which describes the health status of reproductive-aged individuals, can influence reproductive, maternal, and fetal/neonatal outcomes. PCH disparities have been observed in certain populations, prompting the development of tailored resources. Our objective was to compare the PCH characteristics of women with and without disabilities., Methods: We undertook a secondary analysis of the 2003-2014 cycles of the Canadian Community Health Survey (CCHS), which included n = 115,295 women aged 15-49 years. Among these, we also examined a sub-sample of n = 12,495 women with a subsequent obstetrical delivery identified in a linkage of the CCHS with the Discharge Abstract Database (DAD, 2003-2017). The outcomes were 8 PCH indicators. We used modified Poisson regression to estimate adjusted prevalence ratios (aPRs) for each PCH indicator, comparing women with and without disabilities, and multinomial logistic regression to calculate adjusted odds ratios for 1, 2, and ≥ 3 PCH indicators (vs. 0). Analyses were adjusted for baseline demographics., Results: Reproductive-aged women with disabilities had significantly increased aPRs of smoking (1.42 [95% CI:1.37-1.48]), obesity (1.57 [1.48-1.65]), and self-reported fair/poor physical (5.56 [5.09-6.07]) and mental health (4.07 [3.71-4.47]), compared to those without disabilities. They were also more likely to have ≥ 3, 2, and 1 PCH indicators (vs. 0). Findings were similar in the sub-sample with a subsequent obstetrical delivery., Conclusion: Canadian reproductive-aged women with disabilities experience important PCH disparities. Further research is needed to inform tailored education and resources to support PCH in individuals with disabilities, in combination with policies to address structural barriers to PCH., (© 2024. The Author(s) under exclusive license to The Canadian Public Health Association.)

Introduction: The goal of this study was to examine potential disparities in positive mental health (PMH) among adults in Canada by sexual orientation and gender modality., Methods: Using 2019 Canadian Community Health Survey (CCHS) Annual Component data (N = 57 034), we compared mean life satisfaction and the prevalence of high self-rated mental health (SRMH), happiness and community belonging between heterosexual and sexual minority adults, and between cisgender and gender minority adults. We used 2019 CCHS Rapid Response on PMH data (N = 11 486) to compare the prevalence of high psychological well-being between heterosexual and sexual minority adults. Linear and logistic regression analyses examined the between-group differences in mean life satisfaction and the other PMH outcomes, respectively., Results: Sexual minority (vs. heterosexual) adults reported lower mean life satisfaction (B = -0.7, 95% CI: -0.8, -0.5) and were less likely to report high SRMH (OR = 0.4, 95% CI: 0.3, 0.5), happiness (OR = 0.4, 95% CI: 0.3, 0.5), community belonging (OR = 0.6, 95% CI: 0.5, 0.7) and psychological well-being (OR = 0.4, 95% CI: 0.3, 0.6). Differences were not always significant for specific sexual minority groups in sexstratified analyses. Gender minority adults reported lower mean life satisfaction and were less likely to report high SRMH and happiness than cisgender adults., Conclusion: Future research could investigate how these PMH disparities arise, risk and protective factors in these populations, how other sociodemographic factors interact with sexual orientation and gender identity to influence PMH and changes in disparities over time., Competing Interests: The authors have no conflicts of interest.

The COVID-19 pandemic has disproportionately affected immigrant and racialized communities globally and revealed another public health crisis - structural racism. While structural racism is known to foster discrimination via mutually reinforcing systems, the unevenness of COVID-19 infections, hospitalizations, and deaths across societies has precipitated attention to the impacts of structural racism. Research highlights the inequitable burden of COVID-19 among immigrant and racialized groups; however, little is known about the synergistic impacts of structural racism and COVID-19 on the health and wellbeing of these groups. Fewer studies examine how structural racism and COVID-19 intersect within neighbourhoods to co-produce landscapes of disease exposure and management. This article examines the pathways through which structural racism shapes access, use, and control of environmental resources among immigrant and racialized individuals in the neighbourhoods of the Peel Region and how they converged to shape health and disease dynamics during the height of Canada's COVID-19 pandemic. Findings from in-depth interviews reveal that mutually reinforcing inequitable systems created environments for COVID-19 to reinscribe disparities in access, use, and control of key resources needed to manage health and disease, and created new forms of disparities and landscapes of inequality for immigrants and racialized individuals. We close with a discussion on the impacts for policy and practice., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: In Canada's largest COVID-19 serological study, SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in blood donors have been monitored since 2020. No study has analysed changes in the association between anti-N seropositivity (a marker of recent infection) and geographic and sociodemographic characteristics over the pandemic., Methods: Using Bayesian multi-level models with spatial effects at the census division level, we analysed changes in correlates of SARS-CoV-2 anti-N seropositivity across three periods in which different variants predominated (pre-Delta, Delta and Omicron). We analysed disparities by geographic area, individual traits (age, sex, race) and neighbourhood factors (urbanicity, material deprivation and social deprivation). Data were from 420 319 blood donations across four regions (Ontario, British Columbia [BC], the Prairies and the Atlantic region) from December 2020 to November 2022., Results: Seropositivity was higher for racialized minorities, males and individuals in more materially deprived neighbourhoods in the pre-Delta and Delta waves. These subgroup differences dissipated in the Omicron wave as large swaths of the population became infected. Across all waves, seropositivity was higher in younger individuals and those with lower neighbourhood social deprivation. Rural residents had high seropositivity in the Prairies, but not other regions. Compared to generalized linear models, multi-level models with spatial effects had better fit and lower error when predicting SARS-CoV-2 anti-N seropositivity by geographic region., Conclusions: Correlates of recent COVID-19 infection have evolved over the pandemic. Many disparities lessened during the Omicron wave, but public health intervention may be warranted to address persistently higher burden among young people and those with less social deprivation., (© The Author(s) 2024. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the International Epidemiological Association.)

Keywords: chronic disease; diabetes; health status disparities; Indigenous peoples EN chronic disease diabetes health status disparities Indigenous peoples 153 155 3 07/15/22 20220719 NES 220719 I To heal a nation, we must first heal the individuals, the families and the communities. i - Art Solomon, Anishinaabe Elder, Songs for the People: Teachings on the Natural Way Indigenous peoples in Canada constitute 4.9% of the population, but they endure more chronic diseases. Chronic disease, diabetes, health status disparities, Indigenous peoples. [Extracted from the article]

Background: Despite the Canadian healthcare system's commitment to equity, evidence for disparate access to primary care (PC) providers exists across individual social identities/positions. Intersectionality allows us to reflect the realities of how social power shapes healthcare experiences at an individual's interdependent and intersecting social identities/positions. The objectives of this study were to determine: (1) the extent to which intersections can be used classify those who had/did not have a PC provider; (2) the degree to which each social identity/position contributes to the ability to classify individuals as having a PC provider; and (3) predicted probabilities of having a PC provider for each intersection., Methods and Findings: Using national cross-sectional data from 241,445 individuals in Canada aged ≥18, we constructed 320 intersections along the dimensions of gender, age, immigration status, race, and income to examine the outcome of whether one had a PC provider. Multilevel analysis of individual heterogeneity and discriminatory accuracy, a multi-level model using individual-level data, was employed to address intersectional objectives. An intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC) of 23% (95%CI: 21-26%) suggests that these intersections could, to a very good extent, explain individual variation in the outcome, with age playing the largest role. Not all between-intersection variance in this outcome could be explained by additive effects of dimensions (remaining ICC: 6%; 95%CI: 2-16%). The highest intersectional predicted probability existed for established immigrant, older South Asian women with high income. The lowest intersectional predicted probability existed for recently immigrated, young, Black men with low income., Conclusions: Despite a "universal" healthcare system, our analysis demonstrated a substantial amount of inequity in primary care across intersections of gender, age, immigration status, race, and income., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (Copyright: © 2024 He et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)

Sexual orientation differences in health and wellbeing among women living with HIV (WLH) are underexplored. Limited research available, however, suggests that sexual minority WLH may experience barriers to HIV care. Cross-sectional baseline data was analyzed from a Canadian cohort study with WLH (sexual minority women [SMW]: n = 180; heterosexual women: n = 1240). SMW (median age 38 years, IQR 13) included bisexual (58.9%), lesbian (17.8%) and other sexualities (23.3%). In multivariable analyses adjusting for age, poverty, education, and ethnicity, SMW identity was associated with increased odds of: clinical (80% vs. 100% antiretroviral adherence), intrapersonal (previous/current injection drug use [IDU] vs. no IDU history, depression, lower resilience), interpersonal (childhood abuse, sex work, adulthood abuse), and structural (HIV support services barriers, unstable housing, racial discrimination, gender discrimination) factors in comparison with heterosexual identity. Sexual minority WLH experience social and health disparities relative to heterosexual WLH, highlighting the need for interventions to promote health equity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Although oral health has improved remarkably in recent decades, not all populations have benefited equally. Ethnic identity, and in particular visible minority status, has been identified as an important risk factor for poor oral health. Canadian research on ethnic disparities in oral health is extremely limited. The aim of this study was to examine ethnic disparities in oral health outcomes and to assess the extent to which ethnic disparities could be accounted for by demographic, socioeconomic and caries-related behavioral factors, among a population-based sample of grade 1 and 2 schoolchildren (age range: 5-8 years) in Alberta, Canada. Methods: A dental survey (administered during 2013-14) included a mouth examination and parent questionnaire. Oral health outcomes included: 1 ) percentage of children with dental caries; 2) number of decayed, extracted/missing (due to caries) and filled teeth; 3) percentage of children with two or more teeth with untreated caries; and 4) percentage of children with parental-ratings of fair or poor oral health. We used multivariable regression analysis to examine ethnic disparities in oral health, adjusting for demographic, socioeconomic and caries-related behavioral variables. Results: We observed significant ethnic disparities in children's oral health. Most visible minority groups, particularly Filipino and Arab, as well as Indigenous children, were more likely to have worse oral health than White populations. In particular, Filipino children had an almost 5-fold higher odds of having severe untreated dental problems (2 or more teeth with untreated caries) than White children. Adjustment for demographic, socioeconomic, and caries-related behavior variables attenuated but did not eliminate ethnic disparities in oral health, with the exception of Latin American children whose outcomes did not differ significantly from White populations after adjustment. Conclusions: Significant ethnic disparities in oral health exist in Alberta, Canada, even when adjusting for demographic, socioeconomic and caries-related behavioral factors, with Filipino, Arab, and Indigenous children being the most affected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Cause-specific (CS) and net survival in a relative survival framework (RS) are two of the most common methods for estimating cancer survival. In this paper, we assess the differences in results produced by two permutations of cause-specific and relative survival applied to estimating cancer survival and disparities in cancer survival, using data from First Nations and non-Aboriginal populations in Canada. Methods: Subjects were members of the 1991 Canadian Census Mortality Cohort, a population-based cohort of adult respondents to the 1991 Long Form Census who have been followed up for incident cancers and death through linkage to administrative databases. We compared four methods: relative survival analyses with ethnicity-specific life tables (RS-ELT); relative survival with general population life tables (RS-GLT); cause-specific survival with a broad definition of cancer death (CS-Broad); and cause-specific survival with a narrow definition of cause of death (CS-Narrow) and applied these to the nine most common cancers among First Nations. Results: Apart from breast and prostate cancers, RS-ELT, RS-GLT, and CS-Broad tended to produce similar estimates of age-standardized five-year survival, whereas CS-Narrow yielded higher estimates of survival. CS-Narrow estimates were particularly unlike those based on the other methods for cancers of the digestive and respiratory tracts. Estimates of disparities in survival were generally comparable across the four methods except for breast and prostate cancers. Conclusions: Cancer surveillance efforts in sub-populations defined by race, ethnicity, geography, socioeconomic status, or similar factors are necessary for identifying disparities and monitoring progress toward reducing them. In the absence of routine monitoring of cancer survival and cancer survival disparities in these populations, estimates generated by different methods will inevitably be compared over time and across populations. In this study, we demonstrate that caution should be exercised in making these comparisons, particularly in interpreting cause-specific survival rates with an unknown or narrow definition of cancer death and in estimates of breast and prostate cancer survival and/or disparities in survival generated by different methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Black Canadians are disproportionately affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, and the literature suggests that online disinformation and misinformation contribute to higher rates of SARS-CoV-2 infection and vaccine hesitancy in Black communities in Canada. Through stakeholder interviews, we sought to describe the nature of COVID-19 online disinformation among Black Canadians and identify the factors contributing to this phenomenon., Methods: We conducted purposive sampling followed by snowball sampling and completed in-depth qualitative interviews with Black stakeholders with insights into the nature and impact of COVID-19 online disinformation and misinformation in Black communities. We analyzed data using content analysis, drawing on analytical resources from intersectionality theory., Results: The stakeholders ( n = 30, 20 purposively sampled and 10 recruited by way of snowball sampling) reported sharing of COVID-19 online disinformation and misinformation in Black Canadian communities, involving social media interaction among family, friends and community members and information shared by prominent Black figures on social media platforms such as WhatsApp and Facebook. Our data analysis shows that poor communication, cultural and religious factors, distrust of health care systems and distrust of governments contributed to COVID-19 disinformation and misinformation in Black communities., Interpretation: Our findings suggest racism and underlying systemic discrimination against Black Canadians immensely catalyzed the spread of disinformation and misinformation in Black communities across Canada, which exacerbated the health inequities Black people experienced. As such, using collaborative interventions to understand challenges within the community to relay information about COVID-19 and vaccines could address vaccine hesitancy., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© 2023 CMA Impact Inc. or its licensors.)

A scoping review was conducted to explore the characteristics, barriers, and enablers of community engagement in place-based approaches to improving health outcomes in a designated area of poor health and disadvantage. The Joanna Briggs Institute methodology for scoping reviews was used. Forty articles met the inclusion criteria of which 31 were conducted in the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, or Australia, and 70% used qualitative methods. The health initiatives were delivered in multiple settings including neighbourhoods, towns, and regions and with a range of population groups including Indigenous and migrant communities. Trust, power, and cultural considerations were the most significant barriers and enablers to community participation in place-based approaches. Developing trust is key to success in community-led, place-based initiatives., (Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Background: Vitamin D is recognized in bone health and the prevention of rickets and osteomalacia., Objective: This study aimed to assess vitamin D status of people in Canada and to identify factors associated with vitamin D inadequacy and deficiency., Methods: Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) from the Canadian Health Measures Survey (cycles 3-6, n = 21,770, 3-79 y) were evaluated for geometric means and proportions <40 (inadequate) and <30 (risk of deficiency) nmol/L. Factors associated with inadequacy or deficiency were tested using logistic regression., Results: Mean serum 25(OH)D was 57.9 (95% CI: 55.4, 60.5) nmol/L; the prevalence of inadequacy was 19.0% (95% CI: 15.7, 22.3) and risk of deficiency was 8.4% (95% CI: 6.5, 10.3). Prominent dietary factors associated with inadequacy in adults included: not consuming fish compared with ≥1/wk (adjusted OR adj : 1.60; 95% CI: 1.21, 2.11), none compared with ≥1/d for cow's milk (OR adj : 1.41; 95% CI: 1.02, 1.94) or margarine (OR adj : 1.42; 95% CI: 1.08, 1.88); or nonuser compared with user of vitamin D supplements (OR adj : 5.21; 95% CI: 3.88, 7.01). Notable demographic factors included: younger adults compared with 71 to 79 y (19-30 y OR adj : 2.33; 95% CI: 1.66, 3.29); BMI ≥30 compared with <25 kg/m 2 (OR adj : 2.30; 95% CI: 1.79, 2.95); lower household income quartile 1 compared with 4 (OR adj : 1.46; 95% CI: 1.00, 2.15); and self-reported Black (OR adj : 8.06; 95% CI: 4.71, 13.81), East/Southeast Asian (OR adj : 3.83; 95% CI: 2.14, 6.85), Middle Eastern (OR adj : 4.57; 95% CI: 3.02, 6.92), and South Asian (OR adj : 4.63; 95% CI: 2.62, 8.19) race compared with White. Similar factors were observed in children and for deficiency., Conclusions: Most people in Canada have adequate vitamin D status; nonetheless, racialized groups have an elevated prevalence of inadequacy. Further research is required to evaluate if current strategies to improve vitamin D status, including increasing vitamin D in fortified foods and supplements, and dietary guidance to include a source of vitamin D every day help to reduce health inequality in Canada., (Crown Copyright © 2023. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: Breast cancer is the most common cancer among females in Canada. This study examines trends in socioeconomic inequalities in the incidence of breast cancer in Canada over time from 1992 to 2010., Methods: A census division level dataset was constructed using the Canadian Cancer Registry, Canadian Census of the Population and National Household Survey. A summary measure of the Concentration index (C), which captures inequality across socioeconomic groups, was used to measure income and education inequalities in breast cancer incidence over the 19-year period., Results: The crude breast cancer incidence increased in Canada between 1992 and 2010. Age-standardized C values indicated no income or education inequalities in breast cancer incidence in the years from 1992 to 2004. However, the incidence was significantly concentrated among females in high income and highly educated neighbourhoods almost half the time in the 6 most recent years (2005-2010). The trend analysis indicated an increase in breast cancer incidence among females living in high income and highly educated neighbourhoods., Conclusion: Breast cancer incidence in Canada was associated with increased socioeconomic status in some more recent years. Our study findings provide previously unavailable empirical evidence to inform discussions on socioeconomic inequalities in breast incidence.

Purpose: An increasing cancer burden among indigenous populations has led to a growing literature about survival disparities between indigenous and nonindigenous persons. We aim to describe and appraise methods used to measure cancer survival in indigenous persons in the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.Methods: We searched Medline, Web of Science, and EMBASE for articles published between 1990 and 2015 that estimated survival in populations indigenous to one of these four countries. We gathered information about data sources, analytical methods, and the extent to which threats to validity were discussed.Results: The search retrieved 83 articles. The most common approach to survival analysis was cause-specific survival (n = 49). Thirty-eight articles measured all-cause survival and 11 measured excess mortality attributable to cancer (relative survival). Three sources of information bias common to all studies (ethnic misclassification, incomplete case ascertainment, and incomplete death ascertainment) were acknowledged in a minority of articles.Conclusions: The methodological considerations we present here are shared with studies of cancer survival across other subpopulations. We urge future researchers on this and related topics to clearly describe their data sources, to justify analytic choices, and to fully discuss the potential impact of those choices on the results and interpretation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: Canada has a low incidence of TB, although certain groups are disproportionately affected. OBJECTIVE: To describe and compare the epidemiology, trends and characteristics of TB in Quebec, Canada, among all patients reported during 1993-2018. METHODS: Demographics and risk factors were compared for the three groups accounting for most TB diagnoses reported in Quebec (foreign-born, Canadian-born non-Indigenous and Inuit). Average annual incidence and incidence rate ratios (IRRs) were estimated and compared using Poisson regression. RESULTS: Of 6,941 persons with a first episode of TB, 4,077 (59%) were foreign-born, 2,314 (33%) were Canadian-born non-Indigenous and 389 (6%) were Inuit. The average annual incidence for foreign-born, Canadian-born non-Indigenous and Inuit was respectively 17.0, 1.4 and 137.1 per 100,000 population. Compared to Canadian-born non-Indigenous, the IRR for foreign-born and Inuit was respectively 12.3 (95% CI 11.6-12.9) and 98.7 (95% CI 88.6-109.9). There was evidence of community transmission among the Inuit, with more than 80% of patients having a TB contact (2012-2018 data) and 65% (251/389) of diagnoses in those aged <25 years. CONCLUSION: Although TB rates among the Canadian-born non-Indigenous are extremely low, there are persistent and distinct TB epidemics among the foreign-born and Inuit. Tailored approaches to TB prevention and care are needed to address TB among high-risk populations in low TB incidence settings.

Objectives: To assess the oral health status and oral health-related quality of life (OHRQoL) of young First Nations and Metis children., Methods: This cross-sectional study assessed the oral health status of Indigenous children <72 mo of age while their parents/caregivers completed a questionnaire, including the Early Childhood Oral Health Impact Scale (ECOHIS), to assess OHRQoL. Analysis included descriptive statistics, bivariate analyses, and multiple regression. A P value ≤0.05 was considered significant., Results: Overall, 146 children were recruited with a mean age of 40.1 ± 21.2 (SD) months, and 49% were male. Among First Nations children, 65.4% had early childhood caries (ECC) as compared with 45.2% among Metis children (P = 0.025). However, there was no statistically significant difference in the prevalence of severe ECC (S-ECC) between First Nations and Metis children (60.6% v. 42.9%, P = 0.051). The mean decayed, missing, and filled primary teeth (dmft) score was 4.9 ± 5.3 (range 0-20), and the mean decayed, missing, and filled surfaces (dmfs) score was 14.5 ± 20.4 (range 0-80). The total mean ECOHIS score was 4.4 ± 5.9 (range 0-25), while the mean Child Impact Section and Family Impact Section scores were 2.6 ± 4.0 (range 0-10) and 1.8 ± 2.8 (range 0-8), respectively. Multiple linear regression showed S-ECC was associated with total mean ECOHIS scores (P = 0.02). Higher total mean ECOHIS scores (which indicates poorer OHRQoL) were observed in children with ECC compared with caries-free children (5.8 v. 2.4, P = 0.0001)., Conclusion: Oral health disparities such as ECC and reduced OHRQoL exist among many First Nations and Metis children in Manitoba. This is the first Canadian study exploring the OHRQoL of Indigenous children in addition to their oral health status., Knowledge Transfer Statement: This study is the first to report on the oral health-related quality of life and its relationship to early childhood caries (ECC) among young Canadian First Nations and Metis children. Metis children are just as likely to suffer from severe ECC than First Nations children. The findings of this study have informed community-based and community-developed oral health promotion and ECC prevention activities.

Objectives: To assess the magnitude of, and changes in, absolute and relative oral health inequality in Canada and the United States, from the 1970s till the first decade of the new millennium., Methods: Data were obtained from four national surveys; two Canadian (NCNS 1970-1972 and CHMS 2007-2009) and two American (HANES 1971-1974 and NHANES 2007-2008). The slope and relative index of inequality were used to measure absolute and relative inequality, respectively. Percentage change in inequality was also calculated., Results: Relative inequality for untreated decay increased by 91% in Canada and 189% in the United States, while for filled teeth it declined by 63% in Canada and 16% in the United States. Relative inequality in edentulism rose by 200% and 78% in Canada and United States, respectively. Absolute inequality declined in both countries., Conclusions: There was persistent absolute and relative inequality in Canada and the United States. An increase in relative inequality for adverse outcomes suggests that improvements in oral health were occurring primarily among the rich, while reductions in relative inequality for filled teeth indicate higher utilization of restorative services among the poor. These results point to the necessity of tackling the sociopolitical determinants of health to mitigate oral health inequality in Canada and the United States., (© 2021 The Authors. Journal of Public Health Dentistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American Association of Public Health Dentistry.)

Data from the early 2000s indicated worse overall health and larger socioeconomic (SES) health inequalities in the U.S. than in Canada. Yet, sociopolitical contexts, health levels, and SES-health inequalities have changed in both countries during the intervening two decades. Drawing on new data, we update the comparison of health levels and SES-health gradients between the two countries. Analyses, focused on self-rated health, are based on two complementary sets of data sources: Resilience and Recovery (RR) data, a harmonized U.S.-Canada survey of social conditions collected in 2020 (N = 3743); and a pair of leading nationally representative health data sources from each country: the National Health Interview Surveys (NHIS, N = 104,027) and the Canadian Community Health Survey (CCHS, N = 97,605), both collected in 2017-2018. Health levels and disparities, net of demographic and socioeconomic covariates, were estimated using modified Poisson models for relative comparisons; descriptives and predicted levels of fair/poor health show the comparisons from absolute perspective. Both data sources show that U.S. adults continue to have significantly worse health than Canadians; the disadvantage may be due to SES differences between the two populations. However, the two data sources yield conflicting findings on SES-health inequalities: the RR data indicate no difference between the two countries in socioeconomic health gradients, while the NHIS/CCHS data show a significantly steeper gradient in the U.S. than in Canada for both education and income. Canadian adults continue to report better health than their U.S. peers, but it is unclear whether health inequalities remain smaller as well. We discuss potential reasons for the conflicting findings and call for a large new cross-national data collection, which will enable scholars and policymakers to better understand health and wellbeing in the U.S. and Canadian contexts., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The objective of this study was to quantify the magnitude of absolute and relative oral health inequality in countries with similar socio-political environments, but differing oral health care systems such as Canada, the United States (US), and the United Kingdom (UK), in the first decade of the new millennium. Clinical oral health data were obtained from the Canadian Health Measures Survey 2007-2009, the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2007-2008, and the Adult Dental Health Survey 2009, for Canada, the US and UK, respectively. The slope index of inequality (SII) and relative index of inequality (RII) were used to quantify absolute and relative inequality, respectively. There was significant oral health inequality in all three countries. Among dentate individuals, inequality in untreated decay was highest among Americans (SII:28.2; RII:4.7), followed by Canada (SII:21.0; RII:3.09) and lowest in the UK (SII:15.8; RII:1.75). Inequality for filled teeth was negligible in all three countries. For edentulism, inequality was highest in Canada (SII: 30.3; RII: 13.2), followed by the UK (SII: 10.2; RII: 11.5) and lowest in the US (SII: 10.3; and RII: 9.26). Lower oral health inequality in the UK speaks to the more equitable nature of its oral health care system, while a highly privatized dental care environment in Canada and the US may explain the higher inequality in these countries. However, despite an almost equal utilization of restorative dental care, there remained a higher concentration of unmet needs among the poor in all three countries., Competing Interests: I have read the journal’s policy and the authors of this manuscript have the following competing interests: Dr. Carlos Quiñonez receives remuneration from Green Shield Canada for consulting services around dental care related issues. All the other authors declare no conflict of interest. This does not alter our adherence to PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials

Rationale: Fibrotic interstitial lung disease (fILD) is a group of pathologic entities characterized by scarring of the lungs and high morbidity and mortality. Research investigating how socioeconomic and residential factors impact outcomes in patients with fILD is lacking. Objectives: To determine the association between neighborhood-level disadvantage and presentation severity, disease progression, lung transplantation, and mortality in patients with fILD from the United States and Canada. Methods: We performed a multicenter, international, prospective cohort study of 4,729 patients with fILD from one U.S. and eight Canadian ILD registry sites. Neighborhood-level disadvantage was measured by the area deprivation index in the United States and the Canadian Index of Multiple Deprivation in Canada. Measurements and Main Results: In the U.S. but not in the Canadian cohort, patients with fILD living in neighborhoods with the greatest disadvantage (top quartile) experience the highest risk of mortality (hazard ratio = 1.51, P  = 0.002), and in subgroups of patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, the top quartile of disadvantage experienced the lowest odds of lung transplantation (odds ratio = 0.46, P  = 0.04). Greater disadvantage was associated with reduced baseline DL CO in both cohorts, but it was not associated with baseline FVC or FVC or DL CO decline in either cohort. Conclusions: Patients with fILD who live in areas with greater neighborhood-level disadvantage in the United States experience higher mortality, and patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis experience lower odds of lung transplantation. These disparities are not seen in Canadian patients, which may indicate differences in access to care between the United States and Canada.

Introduction: Monitoring health inequalities in adolescents informs policy approaches to reducing these inequalities early in the life course. The purpose of this study was to investigate trends in gender and socioeconomic inequalities in six health domains., Methods: Data were from five quadrennial survey cycles of the Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study in Canada (pooled n = 94 887 participants). Differences in health between socioeconomic groups (based on material deprivation) and between genders were assessed using slope and relative indices of inequality in six health domains: daily physical activity, excess body weight, frequent physical symptoms, frequent psychological symptoms, low life satisfaction, and fair or poor self-rated health., Results: Over a 16-year period, adolescents in Canada reported progressively worse health in four health domains, with those at the lowest socioeconomic position showing the steepest declines. Socioeconomic differences increased in excess body weight, physical symptoms, low life satisfaction, and fair or poor health. Gender differences also increased. Females showed poorer health than males in all domains except excess body weight, and gender differences increased over time in physical symptoms, psychological symptoms and low life satisfaction., Conclusion: Socioeconomic and gender inequalities in health are persistent and widening among adolescents in Canada. Policies that address material and social factors that contribute to health disparities in adolescence are warranted., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Progress in reducing health inequalities through public policy action is difficult in nations identified as liberal welfare states. In Canada, as elsewhere, researchers and advocates provide governing authorities with empirical findings on the sources of health inequalities and document the lived experiences of those encountering these adverse health outcomes with the hope of provoking public policy action. However, critical analysis of the societal structures and processes that make improving the sources of health inequalities difficult-the quality and distribution of living and working conditions, that is the social determinants of health-identifies limitations in these approaches. Within this latter critical tradition, we consider-using household food insecurity in Canada as an illustration-how polemics and anger mobilization, usually absent in health inequalities research and advocacy-could force Canadian governing authorities to reduce health inequalities through public policy action. We explore the potential of using high valence terms such as structural violence, social death and social murder, which make explicit the adverse outcomes of health-threatening public policy to force government action. We conclude by outlining the potential benefits and threats posed by polemics and anger mobilization as means of promoting health equity., (© 2021 Foundation for the Sociology of Health & Illness.)

Introduction: The objective of this study is to examine the temporal trends and patterns of regional and socioeconomic disparities in cardiovascular disease (CVD) in Canada during 2005-2016., Methods: A total of 670 000 adults aged ≥20 years who participated in the Canadian Community Health Surveys between 2005 and 2016 were enrolled for this study. CVD referred to heart disease and stroke in this study. Equivalised household income was used as a proxy of socioeconomic status. Absolute and relative socioeconomic inequalities were measured by slope index of inequality (SII) and relative index of inequality (RII), respectively., Results: In 2015/2016, the overall age-adjusted and sex-adjusted prevalence of heart disease and stroke was 4.80% (95% CI 4.61% to 4.98%) and 1.25% (95% CI 1.13% to 1.36%), respectively. Trend analyses suggested a significant decline in the age-adjusted and sex-adjusted prevalence of heart disease (P for trend <0.001) and a non-significant decline in the age-adjusted and sex-adjusted prevalence of stroke (P for trend=0.058) from 2005 to 2016. Nevertheless, the total number of adults suffering from heart disease and stroke increased by 8.9% and 20.2% over the study period, respectively. Moreover, the age-adjusted and sex-adjusted prevalence of heart disease and stroke varied widely across all health regions, and both of them tended be higher among those with lower income. The SII and RII indicated that there were persistent absolute and relative socioeconomic inequalities in heart disease and stroke across all surveys (eg, SII for heart disease in both sexes, 2005: 0.04 (95% CI 0.03 to 0.04); 2015/2016: 0.03 (95% CI, 0.02 to 0.04); RII for heart disease in both sexes, 2005: 1.99 (95% CI 1.75 to 2.27); 2015/2016: 1.77 (95% CI 1.52 to 2.08)., Conclusion: Geographical and socioeconomic disparities should be taken into account during the further efforts to strengthen preventive measures and optimise healthcare resources for heart disease and stroke in Canada., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2021. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

The COVID-19 pandemic poses a grave health threat and has serious socio-economic implications for all. However, crises are not experienced equally; the pandemic has disproportionately affected immigrants in several countries, including Canada and the United States. The effects of COVID-19 have exposed the realities of societal and structural inequities, worsened the socio-economic status of many immigrants, and placed them at higher risks of poor health outcomes. Emerging research on COVID-19 and race in Canada addresses the structural inequities that shape the disproportionate harms of COVID-19 on immigrants. For sub-Saharan African immigrants, these inequities are worse due to the intersecting systems of race, gender, and class marginalization. They tend to be more exposed and less protected amid the pandemic. Given the lack of research on sub-Saharan African immigrants' experiences in Canada, this paper discusses how multiple axes of inequities shape their health and livelihood during COVID-19. The objective is to provide a broader scientific understanding of issues related to systemic inequities and health for sub-Saharan African immigrants in Canada and the related implications for public health advocates, policymakers, and the public., (© 2021. The Canadian Public Health Association.)

Objectives: To understand the differential vulnerability to household food insecurity of the Black population as compared with white counterparts in Canada., Methods: Using data for households with Black and white respondents in pooled Canadian Community Health Survey cycles from 2005 to 2014, the 18-question Household Food Security Survey Module was analyzed (N = 491,400). Bivariate and multivariate logistic and multinomial regression models were run using respondent's race, immigration status, and six well-established predictors of household food insecurity in the general population. Additional multivariable logistic regression models were run, with race interacted with each predictor individually to yield predicted probabilities., Results: The weighted prevalence of household food insecurity was 10.0% for white respondents and 28.4% for Black respondents. The odds of Black households being food-insecure as compared with white households fell from 3.56 (95% CI: 3.30-3.85) to 1.88 (95% CI: 1.70-2.08) with adjustment for household socio-demographic characteristics. In contrast with white households, there was relative homogeneity of risk of food insecurity among Black subgroups defined by immigration status, household composition, education, and province of residence. Homeownership was associated with lower probabilities of food insecurity for Black and white households, but the probability among Black owners was similar to that for white renters (14.7% vs. 14.3%). Black households had significantly higher predicted probabilities of food insecurity than their white counterparts across all main sources of household income except child benefits and social assistance., Conclusion: Being racialized as Black appears to be an overriding factor shaping vulnerability to food insecurity for the Black population in Canada. Future research and public policy on food insecurity should seriously consider the role of racism at the systemic and institutional levels., (© 2021. The Canadian Public Health Association.)

Competing Interests: Intérêts concurrents: Azza Eissa, Aisha Lofters et Onye Nnorom sont membres de l’Association des médecins noirs de l’Ontario. Nancy Akor est infirmière autorisée au centre de santé communautaire TAIBU. Cheryl Prescod est la directrice générale du centre de santé communautaire Black Creek. Aucun autre intérêt concurrent n’a été déclaré.

Objective: Much of the extensive quantitative research linking socio-economic position (SEP) and health utilizes three common indicators: income, occupation and education. Existing survey data may enable researchers to include indicators of additional forms of capital in their analyses, permitting more nuanced consideration of the relationship between SEP and health. Our objective was to identify the breadth of survey questions related to economic, cultural, and social capital available through Statistics Canada surveys, and the extent to which those surveys also include health measures. Methods: We compiled a list of all population-based Statistics Canada surveys, and developed a broad list of potential indicators of forms of capital. We systematically searched the surveys for those indicators and health measures, analyzing their co-occurrence. Results: Traditional SEP indicators were present in 73% of surveys containing health measures, while additional indicators of social and cultural capital were available in 57%. Conclusion: Existing national survey data represent an under-exploited opportunity for research examining the relationship between various forms of capital and health in Canada. Future empirical explorations of these data could enrich our theoretical understanding of health inequities., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Godley, Fundytus, Stones, Peller and McLaren.)

Objectives: Canadians do not all enjoy equal levels of health. The presence of income-related health inequalities has been well established in Canada, but there is a lack of consistent reporting of mental health inequalities in Canada's largest cities. This study reports the prevalence and inequalities in mental health outcomes at the city, provincial, and national levels over time., Methods: Self-reported poor mental health, life stress, and physician-diagnosed self-reported mood and anxiety disorder from the Canadian Community Health Survey were pooled over five-year intervals and combined with neighbourhood income information from the Canadian Census. First, prevalence rates were calculated for each interval at the neighbourhood level for urban communities. Second, the distributions of these neighbourhood rates were summarized at the city level and for Canada as a whole using overall prevalence rates and concentration indices of inequality. Finally, trends in these city- and country-level outcomes were also explored., Results: At the national level, starting from 2001 to 2005, the prevalence of poor mental health (27.9%), mood disorder (7.3%), and anxiety disorder (6.8%) had significantly increased by 2011-2015. Inequalities were present in 2001-2005 and worsened over time. The prevalence rate at the national level of life stress was 66.6% in 2001-2005 and decreased over time., Conclusion: The large and increasing values of inequalities and the difference in prevalence rates and inequalities in cities highlight the necessity for mental disorder-specific data and for city-level analysis of inequalities. The next steps in reducing inequalities involve deconstructing the health inequalities, and continued monitoring.

Objective: To evaluate the pattern of frailty across several of social stratifiers associated with health inequalities., Design, Setting and Participants: Cross-sectional baseline data on 51 338 community-living women and men aged 45-85 years from the population-based Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging (collected from September 2011 to May 2015) were used in this study., Primary Outcomes and Measures: A Frailty Index (FI) was constructed using self-reported chronic conditions, psychological function and cognitive status and physical functioning variables. Social stratifiers were chosen based on the Pan-Canadian Health Inequalities Reporting Initiative, reflecting key health inequalities in Canada. Unadjusted and adjusted FIs and domain-specific FIs (based on chronic conditions, physical function, psychological/cognitive deficits) were examined across population strata., Results: The overall mean FI was 0.13±0.08. It increased with age and was higher in women than men. Higher mean FIs were found among study participants with low income (0.20±0.10), who did not complete secondary education (0.17±0.09) or had low perceived social standing (0.18±0.10). Values did not differ by Canadian province of residence or urban/rural status. After simultaneously adjusting for population characteristics and other covariates, income explained the most heterogeneity in frailty, especially in younger age groups; similar patterns were found for men and women. The average frailty for people aged 45-54 in the lowest income group was greater than that for those aged 75-85 years. The heterogeneity in the FI among income groups was greatest for the psychological/cognitive domain., Conclusions: Our results suggest that especially in the younger age groups, psychological/cognitive deficits are most highly associated with both overall frailty levels and the gradient in frailty associated with income. If this is predictive of later increases in the other two domains (and overall frailty), it raises the question whether targeting mental health factors earlier in life might be an effective approach to mitigating frailty., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2021. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Background: Racial disparities in open thoracic aortic aneurysm repair have been well-documented, with Black patients reported to suffer from poor outcomes compared with their White counterparts. It is unclear whether these disparities extend to the less invasive thoracic endovascular aortic repair (TEVAR). This study aims to examine the clinical characteristics, perioperative outcomes, and 1-year survival of Black vs White patients undergoing TEVAR in a national vascular surgery database., Methods: The Vascular Quality Initiative database was retrospectively queried to identify all patients who underwent TEVAR between January 2011 and December 2019. The primary outcomes were 30-day mortality and 1-year survival after TEVAR. Secondary outcomes included various types of major postoperative complications. Multivariable logistic regression analyses were performed to identify predictors of 30-day mortality and perioperative complications. Multivariable Cox regression analysis was used to determine the predictors of 1-year survival., Results: A total of 2669 patients with TEVAR were identified in the Vascular Quality Initiative, of whom 648 were Black patients (24.3%). Compared with White patients, Black patients were younger and had a higher burden of comorbidities, including hypertension, diabetes, congestive heart failure, dialysis dependence, and anemia. Black patients were more likely to be symptomatic, present with aortic dissection, and undergo urgent or emergent repair. There was no statistically significant difference in 30-day mortality between Black and White patients (3.4% vs 4.9%; P = .1). After adjustment for demographics, comorbidities, and operative factors, Black patients were independently associated with a 56% decrease in 30-day mortality risk compared with their White counterparts (odds ratio, 0.44; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.22-0.85; P = .01) and not associated with an increased risk of perioperative complications (odds ratio, 0.90; 95% CI, 0.68-1.17; P = .42). Black patients also had a significantly better 1-year overall survival (log-rank, P = .024) and were associated with a significantly decreased 1-year mortality (hazard ratio, 0.65; 95% CI, 0.47-0.91; P = .01) after adjusting for multiple clinical factors., Conclusions: Although Black patients carried a higher burden of comorbidities, the racial disparities in perioperative outcomes and 1-year survival do not persist in TEVAR., (Copyright © 2020 Society for Vascular Surgery. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To examine social, economic, and migratory influences on the health of racial and ethnic minority groups in Canada, with a special focus on Caribbean immigrants., Methods: Combined annual cycles (2011-2016) of the Canadian Community Health Survey (CCHS) data totaling over 300,000 adult Canadian residents were aggregated. Descriptive statistics and multivariable logistic regression models were used to examine the prevalence and associated factors of (1) cardiovascular disease diagnosed by a healthcare professional, and (2) self-rated general health among racial and ethnic groups., Results: Caribbeans in general, Black and other non-White Canadians had significantly higher odds (adjusted for age/sex) of reporting any cardiovascular disease compared with White Canadians. Only non-Caribbean Blacks had higher odds of self-rated fair or poor general health compared with White Canadians. Multivariate logistic regression models revealed that after controlling for social and demographic factors, immigration status and years since migration, Caribbean non-Blacks and Black Caribbeans were at higher odds of having a doctor-reported cardiovascular health condition compared with White Canadians. Caribbean non-Blacks also had higher odds of fair or poor self-rated health than White Canadians., Conclusion: The results of this study highlight the need for additional investigations of other potential influences on physical health statuses, especially among migrants and those of African ancestry who might be more prone to adverse health outcomes.