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In multimedia learning, there is a lot of new information that learners are exposed to, making it a cognitively intensive process. Poorly-designed multimedia lessons can introduce distractions that must be dealt with by the learner. However, learners do not all share the same skill at managing incoming information or holding capacity, which could create individual differences in the impact of multimedia lessons on learning and lead to inequity in learning. In three experiments, learners saw a multimedia lesson varying in the amount of distracting material included: high (Experiment 1), moderate (Experiment 2), or low (Experiment 3). Learners took a posttest and completed tasks to assess individual differences in managing incoming information (executive function) and holding capacity (working memory capacity). When distractions were present (Experiment 1 and Experiment 2), executive function was related to posttest performance such that as executive functioning increased, performance on the posttest increased. However, when distractions were not present (Experiment 3), executive function was not related to posttest performance. Individual differences in working memory capacity were not related to posttest performance at any level of distraction. This indicates the importance of considering individual differences in learners' executive functioning in the design of multimedia lessons.

Research Findings: Early elementary school is a crucial time for the development of executive functions, but less is known about the impact of parent-child narratives on executive function development in children of this age group. This study aims to investigate the influence of parental scaffolding styles in parent-child co-constructed narratives in the development of transitional kindergartners' executive function. The sample comprised 35 Hispanic and non-Hispanic parent-child dyads, who were video recorded discussing a past experience at home. Video recordings were transcribed and coded for parental scaffolding strategies. Through principal component analysis, three scaffolding styles were identified: elaborative, eliciting, and echoing. Children's executive function was measured using the pencil tap task. Hierarchical linear regression analysis revealed that parents' echoing scaffolding style was positively and significantly associated with children's executive function outcomes, after controlling for child expressive language, maternal education, and parent dominant narrative languages. Practice or Policy: These findings highlight that the way parents scaffold their children's narratives can have a positive impact on their development of executive function. It also emphasizes the need for educators and practitioners to recognize the role of parent-child language interactions in supporting children's cognitive development, and to collaborate with families to promote positive developmental outcomes.

The present study tests two predictions stemming from the hypothesis that a source of difficulty with rational numbers is interference from whole number magnitude knowledge. First, inhibitory control should be an independent predictor of fraction understanding, even after controlling for working memory. Second, if the source of interference is whole number knowledge, then it should hinder fraction understanding. These predictions were tested in a racially and socioeconomically diverse sample of U.S. children (N = 765; 337 female) in Grades 3 (ages 8-9), 5 (ages 10-11), and 7 (ages 12-13) who completed a battery of computerized tests. The fraction comparison task included problems with both shared components (e.g., 3/5 > 2/5) and distinct components (e.g., 2/3 > 5/9), and problems that were congruent (e.g., 5/6 > 3/4) and incongruent (e.g., 3/4 > 5/7) with whole number knowledge. Inhibitory control predicted fraction comparison performance over and above working memory across component and congruency types. Whole number knowledge did not hinder performance and instead positively predicted performance for fractions with shared components. These results highlight a role for inhibitory control in rational number understanding and suggest that its contribution may be distinct from inhibiting whole number magnitude knowledge. [This article was written with the Project iLead Consortium.]

Considerable research has documented the impact of teacher perceptions on students' academic-related outcomes (e.g., classroom performance). This body of literature clearly shows that teacher perceptions (resulting from direct interactions with students) can have both positive and negative effects with respect to student behaviors and experiences in the classroom. What remains unclear is whether teachers perceive changes that result from interventions administered outside of their classrooms. The purpose of this study was to examine changes in teacher perceptions of working memory and executive function concerns (two important predictors of academic success) among students who participated in a computerized cognitive training program designed to enhance working memory skills. The current results indicate that teachers perceived fewer concerns following students' participation in the training; this outcome was supplemented with significant improvements in the students' working memory capabilities following the training program. These findings have important implications given the literature highlighting the relation between teacher perceptions and student outcomes as a function of a school-based computerized cognitive training intervention.

The COVID-19 pandemic necessitated a systematic change in course modalities due to the nationwide suspension of in-person instruction, resulting in the transition to emergency remote distance learning via Zoom. This transition certainly facilitated affordances of flexibility and continuity, but with it brought issues of unfamiliarity, lack of confidence, anxiety, distractions, and validity from both the instructors and the student perspectives. This in situ study aimed to better understand the students' learning experiences with Zoom by assessing the social, cognitive, and behavioral factors influencing learner's mind-wandering and its effect on online engagement. Undergraduate students from 14 classes across two research institutions in California (N = 633) were recruited to participate in an online survey while distance learning through a pandemic. Structural equation modeling was used to conduct a path analysis to explain the factors impacting students' online engagement mediated by students' frequency to mind-wander. Study findings revealed that (1) self-efficacy and trait anxiety had significant direct effects on students' mind-wandering; (2) self-efficacy, trait anxiety, task-value beliefs, and mind-wandering had significant direct effects on students' online engagement; and finally (3) the frequency of students' mind-wandering partially mediated the relationship between self-efficacy and engagement and between trait anxiety and engagement. Identifying these structural relationships further confirmed our hypotheses on sources contributing to students' mind-wandering while learning remotely, provided insights into potential mechanisms underpinning students' online engagement, and suggests practical pedagogical learning experience design recommendations for instructors to immediately implement while teaching and learning with Zoom.

Cognitive, numeracy, and motivational factors have been implicated in math achievement. However, few studies have investigated these factors simultaneously and in middle childhood, limiting our understanding of the relative contributions of these factors during an important developmental period. The current study investigated how one numeracy, four cognitive, and three motivational factors predicted math performance in 525 third, 771 fourth, and 465 fifth grade students, and whether these relations changed by grade and the type of math measured. Participants completed the California Standards Test (CST; Educational Testing Service, 2014) in Spring 2012 and Spring 2013 to assess math performance, and a battery of numeracy, cognitive, and motivational measures in Spring 2013. Separate multilevel regressions predicting 2013 CST performance were conducted for each grade, and z scores were used to compare the coefficients between grades. Results showed that updating and math expectancy were related to broad-level math performance for all grades. Further, numeracy and shifting were most predictive of math performance for younger grades, whereas math expectancy was most predictive for older grades across a range of math content. The results suggest that numeracy, cognitive, and motivational factors all relate to math performance when these three types of factors are considered, with numeracy, updating, shifting, and math expectancy showing the most reliable relations depending on grade. The relations between factors and math types may also have implications for interventions aiming to improve specific types of math.

A socioeconomic status (SES)-related achievement gap in mathematics emerges prior to school entry, and increases in elementary school. This gap makes implementation of demanding mathematics standards (e.g., the Common Core State Standards) an ongoing challenge. Early educational intervention is a strategy for addressing this challenge. A randomised controlled trial was conducted in public American preschools to (1) replicate the efficacy of an intervention, "Pre-K Mathematics," for low-SES children, and (2) test the combined impact of this intervention and a Common-Core-aligned kindergarten intervention, "Early Learning in Mathematics." Forty-one clusters of pre-kindergarten and kindergarten classrooms, containing a sample of 389 low-SES children from an agricultural region, were randomly assigned to treatment and control conditions. The original impact findings were replicated: Child mathematics outcomes in pre-kindergarten were positive and significant. Gains were maintained in kindergarten. Thus, the gap can be reduced and gains maintained by sustained early intervention. [For the corresponding grantee submission, see ED618489.]

Childhood socioeconomic status (SES), as measured by parental education and family income, is highly predictive of academic achievement, but little is known about how specific cognitive systems shape SES disparities in achievement outcomes. This study investigated the extent to which executive function (EF) mediated associations between parental education and family income and changes in reading and math achievement in a sample of 336 children between the ages of 6 and 15 years from the NIH MRI Study of Normal Brain Development. Verbal memory was simultaneously modeled as a comparison candidate mediator. SES predicted significant changes in reading and math achievement over a two-year time period. Furthermore, executive function, but not verbal memory, was found to partially mediate the relationship between SES variables and change in math achievement. Collectively, these results suggest that executive function may be an important link between childhood SES and academic achievement

Executive function is the set of cognitive skills needed for goal directed behavior and is a strong predictor of academic success (Best, 2014). The present study examines the effectiveness of a custom video game designed to train the executive function skill of shifting--being able to efficiently shift attention from 1 task to another. In Experiment 1, students who played Alien Game for 4 hr, mostly at home, improved shifting skill more than those who played a word-search control game (d = 0.40). In Experiment 2, students who played All You Can ET (an updated version of Alien Game) for 2 hr improved shifting skill more than those who played a word-search control game (d = 0.36), regardless of whether the aliens were designed to portray hot or cool emotions. In addition, playing All You Can ET, which targets shifting skill, did not cause an improvement on inhibition skill, which represents a different kind of executive function. These results extend previous findings (Parong et al., 2017), and highlight a somewhat rare case in which playing a focused computer game for a short duration causes improvements in a targeted executive function skill. Overall, the results support the theory of specific transfer of general skills, which suggests that game-based training of cognitive skills should focus on concentrated practice on a target skill to train the target skill rather than divided practice across multiple different skills in an attempt to improve the mind in general.

Numerous interventions have been identified as evidence-based practices for educating students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Physical activity (PA) has recently been recognized as an evidence-based practice to decrease maladaptive behaviors and increase desired behaviors. Exercise has been found to increase academic engagement in students with ASD; however, little research has been completed on the effectiveness of physical exercise as a school-based intervention. PA has also been found to be an effective intervention to increase executive functioning (EF) in students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. However, little research has been completed on the effects of PA on EF in students with ASD. A multiple-baseline design was used to examine the effects of PA on academic engaged time and EF. Three students participated in a jogging intervention, were observed in the classroom, and completed EF measures. Results suggested large effect sizes for academic engagement for all three students. Although no significant effects were found on EF, results indicated PA may be an effective and feasible intervention to support academic achievement for students with ASD in schools.

This study examined relations between children's false statements and response latency, executive functioning, and truth--lie understanding in order to understand what underlies children's emerging ability to make false statements. A total of 158 (2- to 5-year-old) children earned prizes for claiming that they were looking at birds even when presented with images of fish. Children were asked recall ("What do you have?"), recognition ("Do you have a bird/fish?"), and outcome ("Did you win/lose?") questions. Response latencies were greater when children were presented with fish pictures than bird pictures, particularly when they were asked recall questions, and were greater for false statements than for true statements, again when children were asked recall questions. Older but not younger children exhibited longer latencies when making false responses to outcome questions, which suggests that younger children were providing impulsive desire-based responses to the outcome questions. Executive functioning, as measured by the Stroop task, was not related to false statements. Children who were better at labeling statements as the truth or not the truth were more proficient at making false statements. The results support the proposition that the cognitive effort required for making false statements depends on the types of questions asked.

Several researchers have hypothesized a deficit in memory processing to exist in children with a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This hypothesis has been supported by findings of deficient recall and recognition ability in children with ASD. Specifically, research has pointed to greater deficits in their ability to recall events related to the self as opposed to others. However, such research has not explored how memory functioning would be impacted when an event with an emotional tenor was used and when a forced choice yes/no paradigm was used to extricate what was remembered from the event. The current study aimed to compare recognition memory for personally experienced and witnessed events using a mock stranger-danger scenario. Forty-two children with ASD underwent either a personally experienced or witnessed event. Following the event, the child was administered a survey assessing their recognition of both thematic and detailed content from the event. No statistically significant differences were identified for recognition memory between the personally experienced and witnessed events. While differences between the groups were not found to be significant, it was revealed that there was a trend towards significance for better recognition of details for the witnessed than for the personally experienced event. Implications for future research are discussed as well as the potential impact of such findings in the terms of forensic and educational domains.

In the 1960s at Stanford University's Bing Preschool, children were given the option of taking an immediate, smaller reward or receiving a delayed, larger reward by waiting until the experimenter returned. Since then, the "Marshmallow Test" has been used in numerous studies to assess delay of gratification. Yet, no prior study has compared the performance of children across the decades. Common wisdom suggests children today would wait less long, preferring immediate gratification. Study 1 confirmed this intuition in a survey of adults in the United States (N = 354; "Mdn" age = 34 years). To test the validity of this prediction, Study 2 analyzed the original data for average delay-of-gratification times (out of 10 min) of 840 typically developing U.S. children in three birth cohorts from similar middle-high socioeconomic backgrounds in the late 1960s, 1980s, and 2000s, matched on age (3 to 5 years) at the time of testing. In contrast to popular belief, results revealed a linear "increase" in delay over time (p < 0.0001, ?[subscript p][superscript 2] = 0.047), such that children in the 2000s waited on average 2 min longer than children in the 1960s, and 1 min longer than children in the 1980s. This pattern was robust with respect to age, sex, geography and sampling effects. We posit that increases in symbolic thought, technology, preschool education, and public attention to executive function skills have contributed to this finding, but caution that more research in diverse populations is needed to examine the generality of the findings and to identify causal factors.

The population of adults on the autism spectrum continues to increase, and vocational outcomes are particularly poor. Longitudinal studies of adults with autism spectrum and without intellectual disability have shown consistent and persistent deficits across cognitive, social, and vocational domains, indicating a need for effective treatments of functional disabilities as each impact employment. This initial pilot study is an open trial investigation of the feasibility, acceptability, and initial estimates of outcomes for the newly developed Supported Employment, Comprehensive Cognitive Enhancement, and Social Skills intervention, a manualized "soft skills" curriculum, to enhance both cognitive and social development in adults with autism spectrum. A total of eight adults with autism spectrum, without intellectual disability (78% males), participated in the study. Results support the original hypothesis that adults with autism spectrum can improve both cognitive (i.e. executive functioning) and social cognitive (i.e. social thinking and social communication) abilities. Further Supported Employment, Comprehensive Cognitive Enhancement, and Social Skills was found to be feasible, acceptable, and highly satisfactory for participants and parents. Employment rates more than doubled post-intervention, with an increase from 22% to 56% of participants employed. Conclusion is that Supported Employment, Comprehensive Cognitive Enhancement, and Social Skills has promise as an intervention that can be easily embedded into exiting supported employment vocational training programs to improve cognitive, social, and vocational outcomes.

Past studies examining the cognitive function of bilingual school-aged children have pointed to enhancements in areas of executive control relative to age-matched monolingual children. The majority of these studies has tested children from a middle-class background and compared performance of bilinguals as a discrete group against monolinguals. The objective of the present study was to determine if cognitive enhancement from bilingualism is sensitive to the child's degree of bilingualism in a sample of eight- and nine-year old Spanish-English bilingual children of low socioeconomic status. The results showed that the more balanced the children were in their language skills, the better they performed on non-verbal tasks of cognitive function. These results support an additive view of bilingualism, where more balanced proficiency in two languages is associated with more enhanced cognitive function, regardless of socioeconomic background.

Physically active video games (i.e., exergames), which are a prevalent and popular childhood activity, may have benefits to executive-functioning (EF) skills, as they incorporate both cognitive engagement and physical activity. Acute EF change in 147 7- to 12-year-olds was assessed after participation in a 20-min activity. The between-subjects design had 4 conditions: exergame, sedentary video game, exercise, and nonplaying control. The varied level of physical and cognitive engagement examined whether the nature of the activity, such as physical movement or cognitive engagement in an enjoyable activity, differentially related to changes in different aspects of EF. Participants in the cognitively engaging conditions (i.e., the 2 video game conditions) improved their accuracy on the most complex EF test and their reaction time on the standard EF test more than participants in the other conditions. These findings suggest that the kind of cognitive engagement involved in video game play is the mechanism of acute effects on EF.

Children's self-regulation, including components of executive function such as inhibitory control, is related concurrently and longitudinally with elementary school children's reading and math abilities. Although several recent studies have examined links between preschool children's self-regulation or executive function and their academic skill development, few included large numbers of Spanish-speaking language-minority children. Among the fastest growing segments of the U.S. school-age population, many of these children are at significant risk of academic difficulties. We examined the relations between inhibitory control and academic skills in a sample containing a large number of Spanish-speaking preschoolers. Overall, the children demonstrated substantial academic risk based on preschool-entry vocabulary scores in the below-average range. Children completed assessments of language, literacy, and math skills in English and Spanish, when appropriate, at the start and end of their preschool year, along with a measure of inhibitory control, the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task, which was administered at the start of the preschool year in the child's dominant conversational language. Scores on this last measure were lower for children for whom it was administered in Spanish. For both English and Spanish outcomes, those scores were significantly and uniquely associated with higher scores on measures of phonological awareness and math skills but not vocabulary or print knowledge skills.

This study evaluated whether the positive association between early autonomy-supportive parenting and children's subsequent achievement is mediated by children's executive functions. Using observations of mothers' parenting from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (N = 1,306), analyses revealed that mothers' autonomy support over the first 3 years of life predicted enhanced executive functions (i.e., inhibition, delay of gratification, and sustained attention) during the year before kindergarten and academic achievement in elementary and high school even when mothers' warmth and cognitive stimulation, as well as other factors (e.g., children's early general cognitive skills and mothers' educational attainment) were covaried. Mediation analyses demonstrated that over and above other attributes (e.g., temperament), children's executive functions partially accounted for the association between early autonomy-supportive parenting and children's subsequent achievement.

Objective: This study tested the relationships among child executive function (EF), child-perceived parent fast food intake, and child self-reported subsequent consumption of high-calorie, low-nutrient (HCLN) food. Design: One year and 6-month longitudinal observation from a larger randomized controlled trial. Setting. Southern California elementary schools. Participants: Fourth- and fifth-grade children (N = 1,005) participating in the Pathways to Health obesity prevention program. Results" Child EF problems were associated with higher concurrent HCLN intake (B = 0.29, SE = 0.10, p < 0.001) and had a significant indirect effect through higher perceived frequency of parent fast food intake ("indirect effect" = 0.17, 95% confidence interval [CI] = [0.11, 0.25], p < 0.001). Longitudinally, child EF problems did not significantly predict higher HCLN intake a year and a half later (B = 0.01, SE = 0.10, p = 0.92, n = 848) but did have a significant indirect effect through higher perceived parent fast food intake ("indirect effect" = 0.05, 95% CI = [0.02, 0.10], p < 0.001). Conclusions: Children's EF difficulties may increase their perception of parent concurrent fast food intake, contributing to their own unhealthy food intake. However, EF problems may not directly affect HCLN intake across time, except when problems are associated with child perception of more frequent parent consumption of convenience foods. Future research is needed to investigate the possibility that helping children perceive and understand role models' convenience food consumption may improve child dietary consumption patterns.

In simple rule-switching tests, 3- and 4-year-olds can follow each of two sorting rules but sometimes make perseverative errors when switching. Older children make few errors but respond slowly when switching. These age-related changes might reflect the maturation of executive functions (e.g., inhibition). However, they might also reflect children's ability to use task cues. Cue-processing difficulties predict switch costs in adult task switching (Logan & Schneider, 2007). It is unknown whether they explain children's task-switching errors or slowing. The current study tested whether inhibition, cue interpretation, or both predict 3- to 6-year-old children's switch-related errors (Experiment 1) and slowing (Experiment 2). Children performed a computerized task-switching test in which most trials were preceded by an audiovisual cue that instructed them to switch rules, or to stay--that is, continue using the current rule. Interspersed control trials used no cue. In Experiment 1, 3- and 4-year-olds made as many errors on cued stay trials as on cued switch trials; however, children were significantly more accurate on uncued stay trials. The presence of cues, not switching demands, predicted errors. Accuracy was predicted by children's speed in a simpler task in which children matched stimuli on only one dimension (shape or color), with no stimulus conflict or rule switches. Additional variance was predicted by an unrelated measure of processing speed. In Experiment 2, switch costs in 4.5- to 6-year-olds were similarly predicted by speed in the simpler unidimensional matching task.

Tests of working memory capacity (WMC) and fluid intelligence (gF) are thought to capture variability in a crucial cognitive capacity that is broadly predictive of success, yet pinpointing the exact nature of this capacity is an area of ongoing controversy. We propose that mind-wandering is associated with performance on tests of WMC and gF, thereby partially explaining both the reliable correlations between these tests and their broad predictive utility. Existing evidence indicates that both WMC and gF are correlated with performance on tasks of attention, yet more decisive evidence requires an assessment of the role of attention and, in particular, mind-wandering during performance of these tests. Four studies employing complementary methodological designs embedded thought sampling into tests of general aptitude and determined that mind-wandering was consistently associated with worse performance on these measures. Collectively, these studies implicate the capacity to avoid mind-wandering during demanding tasks as a potentially important source of success on measures of general aptitude, while also raising important questions about whether the previously documented relationship between WMC and mind-wandering can be exclusively attributed to executive failures preceding mind-wandering (McVay & Kane, 2010b). (Contains 4 figures, 3 tables and 5 footnotes.)

The present study investigated whether (a) growth patterns related to cognitive processing (working memory, updating, inhibition) differed in subgroups of children with reading disabilities (RD) and (b) growth in working memory (executive processing) predicted growth in other cognitive areas, such as reading and math. Seventy-three children (ages 7-17) categorized as poor decoders, poor comprehenders, or average readers were administered a battery of achievement and cognitive measures for three consecutive years. Hierarchical linear modeling showed that growth in executive processing (inhibition) in children with RD constrained growth in reading and math. The results support the notion that development in the executive system underlies performance on reading and math measures. (Contains 5 tables and 1 figure.)

Disadvantageous decision making is cited as one of the premier problems in childhood development, underlying risky behavior and causing adolescents to make poor choices that could prove detrimental later in life. However, there are relatively few studies looking at the development of decision making in children and adolescents, and fewer still comparing it with the performance trajectories of more typically developing cognitive functions. In the current study, we measured the affective decision-making abilities of children and adolescents 8- to 17-years-old using the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT; Bechara, 2007) in conjunction with a battery of established cognitive neuropsychological assessments. In contrast to the typical linear development of executive functions, affective decision-making abilities progressed in a J-shaped curve. Younger, more developmentally naive children performed better on the IGT than older, early-adolescent individuals, with performance becoming advantageous again toward the end of the teenage years. This trajectory is thought to coincide with asymmetric neural development in early adolescents, with relatively overactive striatal regions creating impulsive reward-driven responses that may go unchecked by the slower developing inhibitive frontal cortex. This trajectory is in stark contrast with the linear development of memory, speed of processing, and other cognitive abilities over the ages. (Contains 3 tables and 1 figure.)

Neurocognitive impairment and metabolic syndrome (MetS) are prevalent in persons with HIV (PWH). We examined disparities in HIV-associated neurocognitive function between Hispanic and non-Hispanic White older PWH, and the role of MetS in explaining these disparities. Participants included 116 community-dwelling PWH aged 50–75 years enrolled in a cohort study in southern California [58 Hispanic (53% Spanish speaking) and 58 age-comparable non-Hispanic White; overall group: age: M = 57.9, standard deviation (SD) = 5.7; education (years): M = 13, SD = 3.4; 83% male, 58% AIDS, 94% on antiretroviral therapy]. Global neurocognition was derived from T-scores adjusted for demographics (age, education, sex, ethnicity, language) on a battery of 10 cognitive tests. MetS was ascertained via standard criteria that considered central obesity, and fasting elevated triglycerides, low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and elevated glucose, or medical treatment for these conditions. Covariates examined included sociodemographic, psychiatric, substance use and HIV disease characteristics. Compared with non-Hispanic Whites, Hispanics showed worse global neurocognitive function (Cohen's d = 0.56, p < 0.05) and had higher rates of MetS (38% vs. 56%, p < 0.05). A stepwise regression model including ethnicity and significant covariates showed Hispanic ethnicity was the sole significant predictor of worse global neurocognition (B = −3.82, SE = 1.27, p < 0.01). A model also including MetS showed that both Hispanic ethnicity (B = −3.39, SE = 1.31, p = 0.01) and MetS (B = −2.73, SE = 1.31, p = 0.04) were independently associated with worse neurocognition. In conclusion, findings indicate that increased MetS is associated with worse neurocognitive function in both Hispanic and non-Hispanic White older PWH, but does not explain neurocognitive disparities. MetS remains an important target for intervention efforts to ameliorate neurocognitive dysfunction among diverse older PWH. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Early-life socioeconomic status (SES) and adversity are associated with late-life cognition and risk of dementia. We examined the association between early-life SES and adversity and late-life cross-sectional cognitive outcomes as well as global cognitive decline, hypothesizing that adulthood SES would mediate these associations. Methods: Our sample (N = 837) was a racially and ethnically diverse cohort of non-Hispanic/Latino White (48%), Black (27%), and Hispanic/Latino (19%) participants from Northern California. Participant addresses were geocoded to the level of the census tract, and US Census Tract 2010 variables (e.g., percent with high school diploma) were extracted and combined to create a neighborhood SES composite. We used multilevel latent variable models to estimate early-life (e.g., parental education, whether participant ever went hungry) and adult (participant's education, main occupation) SES factors and their associations with cross-sectional and longitudinal cognitive outcomes of episodic memory, semantic memory, executive function, and spatial ability. Results: Child and adult factors were strongly related to domain-specific cognitive intercepts (0.20–0.48 SD per SD of SES factor); in contrast, SES factors were not related to global cognitive change (0.001–0.01 SD per year per SD of SES factor). Adulthood SES mediated a large percentage (68–75%) of the total early-life effect on cognition. Conclusions: Early-life sociocontextual factors are more strongly associated with cross-sectional late-life cognitive performance compared to cognitive change; this effect is largely mediated through associations with adulthood SES. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Executive functions (EF) and sensorimotor skills play a critical role in children's goal-directed behavior and school readiness. The aim of the current study is to provide new insights into the relationship between executive functions and sensorimotor development by considering the risks associated with learning difficulties. Therefore, we investigate the predictive role of EF and sensorimotor skills in the development of learning difficulties during preschool years. Ninety-five preschool children (5–7 years old) were tested, comparing the performance of children that are at risk of learning difficulties (n = 55) to the performance of typically developing children (n = 40). Participants completed a battery for the assessment of sensorimotor skills (i.e., Southern California Sensory Integration Test: postural imitation, body midline crossing, bilateral motor coordination, and standing balance with eyes open) and executive functions (i.e., inhibition, cognitive flexibility, and verbal working memory). Our results show that children at risk for learning difficulties exhibited more impairments on sensorimotor and EF measures (inhibition and verbal working memory) when compared with TD children. We ran three separate binary logistic regression analyses to assess the relative influence of EF and sensorimotor functions on predicting risk for learning difficulties. Our findings demonstrated that verbal working memory as EF function (odd ratio OR = 0.91 , 95% CI 0.78-0.91, P = 0.05) and standing balance skills as a sensorimotor skill (odd ratio OR = 0.86 , 95% CI 0.81-0.98, P = 0.01) were the strongest predictors of risk for learning difficulties. The findings point to the importance of supporting children's executive function development and promoting sensorimotor development, as both fundamentally influence school readiness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a progressive inflammatory neurodegenerative disease of the nervous system accompanied by demyelination. MS‐associated cognitive impairments mainly involve recent memory, information processing speed, stable memory, and executive function. Moreover, MS is associated with impaired glucose and insulin metabolism, which can exacerbate cognitive decline. The present study aimed to compare the cognitive status of MS patients with and without insulin resistance. In this cross‐sectional study, 74 relapsing–remitting multiple sclerosis diagnosed patients were enrolled. Indicators of insulin resistance, including fasting blood glucose, insulin level, and homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA‐IR) index, were measured. They were then divided into two groups based on the results of the HOMA‐IR index. Cognition status was evaluated by the minimal assessment of cognitive function in multiple sclerosis battery. The prevalence of insulin resistance was 37.8%, and the prevalence of cognitive decline was estimated to be 67.56%. Mean scores of the California verbal learning test (CVLT), CVLT delayed free recall, controlled oral word association test, and judgment of line orientation tests were significantly lower in MS patients with insulin resistance than without. In addition, a negative correlation was demonstrated between the results of the CVLT, CVLT delayed free recall, controlled oral word association test, judgment of line orientation tests, brief visuospatial memory test, and Delis‐Kaplan executive function system sorting tests and fasting insulin levels. Greater verbal memory and spatial comprehension impairments were observed in MS patients with insulin resistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Worry has been shown to have a negative impact on many aspects of neurocognitive performance. Interestingly, research indicates mindfulness both improves aspects of cognitive ability and reduces worry symptoms. Yet, the impact of mindfulness on the relationship between worry and cognition has yet to be explored. Based on research discussed herein, we hypothesize that those with higher levels of dispositional mindfulness will have better cognitive performance than those with lower levels of dispositional mindfulness, regardless of worry level. The present study investigated the potential moderating influence of mindfulness on the relationship between worry and cognitive performance. Methods: The sample included 113 older veterans who were screened at the VA Palo Alto Health Care System in Palo Alto, CA. Cognitive domains of interest included learning and memory, processing speed, attention, working memory, and executive function. Mindfulness was assessed with the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ), and worry symptoms were assessed using the Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ). Hypotheses were tested with multiple regression analyses using the Hayes (2003) PROCESS macro. Results: Contrary to what was hypothesized, only mindful awareness significantly moderated the relationship between worry and processing speed. Conclusion: This finding has important implications for introducing mindfulness techniques into older adults' routines to decrease worry and mitigate its negative effects on processing speed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We evaluated overall and race-specific relationships between social integration and cognition in older adults. Kaiser Healthy Aging and Diverse Life Experiences (KHANDLE) cohort participants included 1343 Asian, Black, Latino, or non-Latino White Kaiser Permanente Northern California members. We estimated the effect of social integration on verbal episodic memory, semantic memory, and executive function derived from the Spanish and English Neuropsychological Assessment (SENAS) Scales. Social integration scores included marital status; volunteer activity; and contact with children, relatives, friends, and confidants. We estimated covariate-adjusted linear mixed-effects models for baseline and 17-month follow-up cognition. Social integration was associated with higher baseline cognitive scores (average β = 0.066 (95% confidence interval: 0.040, 0.092)) overall and in each racial/ethnic group. The association did not vary by race/ethnicity. Social integration was not associated with the estimated rate of cognitive change. In this cohort, more social integration was similarly associated with better late-life cognition across racial/ethnic groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective Cognitive functioning is associated with instrumental activity of daily living (IADL) performance among older adults. The present study examines potential differences in the prevalence of IADL difficulty and association with cognition across diverse groups. Method Participants included 455 non-Hispanic Whites, 395 Blacks, 370 Asians, and 296 Latinos aged 65 years and older without a current dementia diagnosis from the Kaiser Healthy Aging and Diverse Life Experience cohort. Participants' self-reported IADL functioning and cognition was measured across episodic memory and executive functioning. Results Older age, male gender, and being Black were associated with more IADL difficulties. Executive functioning showed a stronger association with IADLs than memory, and it was independent of health status, whereas memory was not. In joint models including both cognitive domains, executive functioning remained a significant predictor of IADL difficulty, but memory did not. Results for both cognitive domains were attenuated with self-rated health added to the joint model. These relationships did not significantly differ across racial/ethnic groups Conclusions Our study supports previous work suggesting that Black older adults are at increased risk for IADL disability. This is the first study we are aware of that examined the association between specific cognitive domains and IADL performance across multiple racial/ethnic groups. Findings indicate that cognitive functioning has similar associations with self-reported IADL disability across diverse groups, and that executive functioning plays a particularly important role in IADL disability among older adults without dementia; however, health status largely attenuates the relationship between IADL difficulty and cognition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Purpose: We examined the association of Stroke Belt birth state with late-life cognition in The Study of Healthy Aging in African Americans (STAR).Methods: STAR enrolled 764 Black Americans ages 50+ who were long-term Kaiser Permanente Northern California members. Participants completed Multiphasic Health Check-ups (MHC; 1964-1985) where early-life overweight/obesity, hypertension, diabetes, and hyperlipidemia were measured. At STAR (2018), birth state, self-reported early-life socioeconomic status (SES), and executive function, verbal episodic memory, and semantic memory scores were collected. We used linear regression to examine the association between Stroke Belt birth and late-life cognition adjusting for birth year, gender, and parental education. We evaluated early-life SES and cardiovascular risk factors (CVRF) as potential mechanisms.Results: Twenty-seven percent of participants were born in the Stroke Belt with a mean age of 69 (standard deviation = 9) at STAR. Stroke Belt birth was associated with worse late-life executive function (β [95% confidence interval]: -0.18 [-0.33, -0.02]) and semantic memory (-0.37 [-0.53, -0.21]), but not verbal episodic memory (-0.04 [-0.20, 0.12]). Adjustment for SES and CVRF attenuated associations of Stroke Belt birth with cognition (executive function [-0.05 {-0.25, 0.14}]; semantic memory [-0.28 {-0.49, -0.07}]).Conclusions: Black Americans born in the Stroke Belt had worse late-life cognition than those born elsewhere, underscoring the importance of early-life exposures on brain health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Around 25 to 30% of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) do not respond to treatment. These patients have the longest duration of disease and the worst prognosis. Following years of research on this topic, insight has emerged as a potential explanation for this therapeutic resistance. Therefore, it has become important to characterize OCD patients with poor insight. Few studies have focused on the neuropsychological and cognitive characteristics of these patients. Methods: To help fill this gap, we divided 57 patients into two groups, one with good insight and the other with poor insight, assessed their neuropsychological functions—through a Rey's figure test, a California verbal learning test, a Toulouse–Piéron test and a Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST)—and compared the results with those of a paired control group. Results: The statistical analysis, with a significance level of 95%, revealed differences in the executive function tests, and particularly in the WCST (p ≤ 0.001) and trail-making-test (TMT A/B) (p = 0.002). Conclusions: These differences suggest that the neuropsychological profile of poor-insight patients is different from their good-insight counterparts, emphasize the role played by the executive functions in insight and highlights the need for more accurate neurocognitive research and treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Depression and borderline personality disorder (BPD) are frequently comorbid psychiatric disorders that reliably share deficits in executive functioning (EF). In addition to EF, meta-analytic evidence indicates that processing speed and verbal memory are also affected in depression and BPD, but the impact of BPD further spans the domains of attention, nonverbal memory, and visuospatial abilities. Suicidality is a notable phenotypic commonality in depression and BPD. Neuropsychologically, there are consistent discrepancies between individuals who have and have not thought about suicide in global cognitive functioning, as well as between those who have attempted suicide and those who have just thought about suicide in EF. This study aims to replicate the effect size differences between these groups and explore whether neuropsychological functioning relates to dimensional measures of psychopathology. Participants and Methods: Right-handed women between the ages of 18 and 55 were recruited into one of three diagnostic groups: a) current major depressive episode (MDD; n=22); b) current major depressive episode with comorbid BPD (MDD+BPD; n=19); and c) absence of current major depressive episode and BPD (controls; n=20). Groups were also classified based on historical suicide attempt and on the presence or absence of historical suicidal ideation. Exclusions included bipolar disorder, neurodevelopmental disorder, moderate/severe brain injury, neurological illness, serious physical illness, eating disorder, and moderate/severe alcohol/substance use disorder. Participants were administered the Zanarini Rating Scale for Borderline Personality Disorder (ZAN-BPD), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II), Interpersonal Needs Questionnaire (INQ), UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale, Everyday Memory Questionnaire, Brief Visuospatial Memory Test (BVMT), California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT), Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS) Color-Word Interference Test, D-KEFS Trail Making Test, D-KEFS Verbal Fluency, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-IV Coding and Digit Span subtests, Wechsler Memory Scale-IV Logical Memory, and Wechsler Test of Adult Reading. Results: With one exception, analyses of raw scores indicated there were no significant neuropsychological differences between groups based on diagnosis, historical suicidal ideation, and suicide attempt (p>.05). However, individuals with MDD+BPD, historical suicidal ideation, or suicide attempt endorsed more memory complaints than the other groups with large effect size differences. Differences in self-reported impulsivity indicated large effects between controls and MDD+BPD, moderate to large effects when comparing controls to MDD and MDD to MDD+BPD, and moderate effects among the suicidal ideation and suicide attempt groups. Impulsivity was rated highest in those with MDD+BPD, historical suicidal ideation, or suicide attempt. These analyses applied false-discovery rate correction and adjusted for age. Using ridge regressions to separately predict depressive symptoms, BPD symptoms, and suicide risk factors, neuropsychological indices were most associated with suicide risk factors and explained 22.8% of INQ variance. Conversely, these indices explained 9.6% of ZAN-BPD variance and 0.6% of BDI-II variance. Conclusions: The neuropsychological literature on BPD describes moderate crosscutting neuropsychological dysfunction, and clarifying the distinct cognitive alterations associated with comorbid psychiatric disorders and suicide phenomena offers novel avenues of research for investigating their mechanisms. While neuropsychological functioning may not strongly relate to psychiatric symptomatology, it may contribute to meaningful algorithms of suicide risk in individuals with depression and BPD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Past research has suggested that executive functions, such as working memory and response inhibition, predict the use of nicotine and tobacco products (NTPs). The current study extends prior research by assessing whether response inhibition and working memory are associated with at-risk youth's willingness to use NTPs. Methods: A sample of 1060 at-risk youth were recruited from alternative high schools in southern California. Participants were randomly assigned to complete the Symmetry Span Task, an indicator of working memory ability, or the cued Go/No-Go task, an indicator of response inhibition. Participants who reported never using NTPs (n = 348) indicated how willing they would be try NTPs. Results: Results from a cross-sectional zero-inflated negative binomial (ZINB) regression suggest that females with stronger working memory skills and individuals with weaker response inhibition skills were more likely to be unwilling to use NTPs. Conclusion: While further research is needed to determine whether executive functions can prospectively predict NTP use among at-risk youth, the current study indicates that both working memory and response inhibition may play a significant role. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: To assess outcomes in adolescence after surgery for congenital heart disease (CHD) in infancy. Domains analysed included cognition and executive function, social and emotional well-being, adaptive behaviour, academic achievement, and health-related quality of life (HRQoL).Method: Twenty-one participants (10 males, 11 females) ranged in age from 14 to 17 years (mean 15y 4.8mo, SD 8.4mo). Twenty had biventricular repairs. All were classified as New York Heart Association class I. Measures included: Wechsler Intelligence and Achievement scales; Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning, Second Edition; California Verbal Learning Test - Children's Version; Behaviour Rating Inventory of Executive Function; Conners, Third Edition; Adaptive Behavior Assessment System, Second Edition; Behavior Assessment System for Children, Second Edition; Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure; and Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory.Results: Outcomes were significantly lower (p≤0.01) than population norms for processing speed, mathematical achievement, attention, and visual-spatial ability. Participants reported more frequent learning problems but more positive family relations. HRQoL was significantly lower across most domains by self- and parent-proxy report.Interpretation: Individuals with CHD may experience difficulties across a range of domains. These findings emphasize the importance of comprehensive screening, early intervention, and long-term follow-up, as deficits may extend into young adulthood.What This Paper Adds: Identified cognitive, learning, and attentional impairments in adolescents after congenital heart disease surgery in infancy. Combined self-report, caregiver report, and laboratory tasks in a comprehensive neurodevelopmental assessment protocol. Health-related quality of life was lower across most domains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The aim of this study was to determine if cognition is affected in female migraine sufferers by comparing cognitive domains with a healthy control group. Materials and Methods: Fifty patients with migraine and 50 healthy controls (all female) were enrolled in this crosssectional case-control study. The Beck Depression test, Beck Anxiety test, California Verbal Learning Test, Montreal Cognitive Assessment Scale, and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) were performed in both groups. Results: Using a multivariate logistic regression model of migraine, WCST non-perseverative error (odds ratio [OR], 1.62; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.028-2.568; p = 0.03), WCST percent of perseverative error (OR, 0.23; 95%CI, 0.071-0.786; p = 0.01), WCST perseverative response (OR, 4.55; 95%CI, 1.272-16.298; p = 0.02), no alcohol consumption (OR, 0.006; 95%CI, 0.000-0.943; p = 0.04), family history of hypertension (OR, 4.46; 95%CI, 1.114- 17.915; p = 0.03), family history of migraine (OR, 4.028; 95%CI, 1.027-15.799; p = 0.04), and no family history of stroke (OR, 0.034; 95%CI, 0.003-0.448; p = 0.01) were significant factors. Conclusion: Among WCST scores, non-perseverative error provides insight into the patient's problem solving ability. Meanwhile, percent perseverative error and perseverative response scores provide insight into cognitive flexibility ability. Therefore, in our study group, patients with migraine show better problem solving and cognitive flexibility ability than the healthy control group. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To investigate long-term effects of GOALS executive function training in Veterans with chronic TBI. In a recently completed study Veterans with chronic TBI showed improvement immediately post-GOALS but not control training on measures of executive function, functional task performance, and emotion regulation. We now examine the long-term maintenance of post-GOALS training changes in the same sample. Setting: San Francisco VA Health Care System (SFVAHCS), and VA Northern California Health-Care System (VANCHS) in Martinez. Participants and Design: 24 Veterans with chronic TBI were assessed at baseline, post-GOALS training, and long-term follow-up 6+ months following completion of training with a structured telephone interview, neuropsychological and complex functional performance measures, and self-report measures of daily and emotional functioning. Results: Participants reported an increased likelihood of involvement in competitive employment/volunteering at follow-up (61%) compared to baseline (26%; χ2 = 5.66, p <.01, ѱ =.35). Repeated measures MANOVAS indicated improvement on attention/executive function (F = 13.85, p <.01, partial η2 =.42), complex functional task performance (GPS Total: F = 9.12, p <.01, partial η2 =.38) and daily functioning (MPAI Total: F = 3.23, p <.05, partial η2 =.21), and reduction in overall mood disturbance (POMS Total: F = 3.42, p <.05, partial η2 =.22) at follow-up relative to baseline. Discussion: Training in attention regulation applied to participant-defined goals is associated with meaningful long-term improvement in cognitive skills, emotion regulation, and daily functioning in Veterans with chronic TBI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background physical activity in older age has been associated with better cognitive function, but the role of earlier life physical activity is less well understood. Objective determine associations between physical activity throughout the lifespan and cognitive function in older age. Design cross-sectional study. Setting the Rancho Bernardo Study of Healthy Aging in southern California. Subjects A total of 1,826 community-dwelling men and women (60–99 years) who attended a research visit in 1988–92. Methods participants underwent cognitive testing at older age, and reported physical activity as a teenager, at age 30 years, 50 years and currently. For each time-point, participants were classified as regularly active (3+ times/week) or inactive. Results regular physical activity was associated with better cognitive function, with physical activity at older ages showing the strongest associations. Physical activity in older age was associated with better global cognitive function, executive function and episodic memory, regardless of intensity. Intense physical activity in teenage years was associated with better late-life global cognitive function in women. Teenage physical activity interacted with older age physical activity on executive function; those active at both periods performed better than those active at only one period. Similar patterns of associations were observed after excluding individuals with poor health. Conclusions regular physical activity in older age, regardless of intensity, is associated with better cognitive function. Physical activity in teenage years may enhance cognitive reserve to protect against age-related decline in executive function. Further research is needed to assess the effect of physical activity across the lifespan on healthy brain ageing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The COVID-19 pandemic increased utilization of remote assessment to allow clinicians and researchers to continue valuable work while maintaining quarantine guidelines. With guidelines relaxing, researchers have returned to in-person assessment. Information is needed regarding the effect of remote assessments on test-retest reliability. COGNET, a longitudinal study of cognition in participants with essential tremor, transitioned from in-person to remote assessments during the pandemic, and has now returned to in-person assessment. The current study investigates the extent to which remote assessment affected test-retest reliability across a range of neuropsychological assessments administered in COGNET. Participants and Methods: Participants included 27 older adults enrolled in COGNET (mean age=75.0 (9.1), education=16.2 (2.6), 67% female, and 100% white). Memory tests included: California Verbal Learning Test II, Logical Memory subtest of the Wechsler Memory Scales - Revised, and Verbal Paired? Associates. Executive function tests included: Digit Span Backwards and the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System subtests of Verbal Fluency, Sorting, and Color-Word. Attention tests included Oral Symbol Digit Modalities Test and Digit Span Forward. Language was assessed with the Boston Naming Test. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) were calculated to examine test-retest reliability of InPerson to In-Person visits (P-P), and combination visits (e.g., In-Person to Remote (PR), and Remote to In-Person (R-P)). Following Koo & Li (2016), ICCs were interpreted as: >.90 excellent,.75-.90 good,.50-.74 moderate, and <.50 poor reliability. The Feldt approach was used to compare ICCs from P-P visits against ICCs calculated for combination visits (P-R or R-P), with the test statistic compared to an F distribution. Results: ICCs for person-to-person assessment ranged from.51 to.89. Memory test ICCs ranged from moderate to good (.51 to.80). Executive function test ICCs ranged from moderate to good (.55 to.89). The attention domain had moderate ICCs (.67 -.68). Language ICC was moderate (.70). ICCs for person-to-remote assessment ranged from.42 to.89. Memory tests ranged from moderate to good ICCs (.59 to.83). Executive function tests ranged from poor to good ICCs (.42 to.89). Attention ICCs were moderate to good (.55 to.79). The Language ICC was moderate (.72). ICCs for remote-to-person ranged from.48 to 86. Memory ICCs ranged from moderate to good (.59 to.86). Executive function ICCs ranged from poor to good (.48 to.83). Attention ICCs were moderate to good (.56 to.79). The Language ICC was good (.78). The only test for which an ICC from a combination visit was significantly lower than a person to person visit was Digit Span Backwards. Conclusions: Test-retest reliability was moderate or better for all P-P assessments, consistent with the known psychometrics of these tests. Only one test of executive function showed lower reliability when remote assessment was introduced. From a broad standpoint, current results suggest that remote administration of neuropsychological tests can be used as a reliable substitute for in-person assessment for many measures, and suggest that caution be used when interpreting any change in Digit Span Backwards across person and remote assessments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Several modifiable lifestyle factors have been shown to have potential beneficial effects in slowing cognitive decline. Two such factors that may affect cognitive performance and slow the progression of memory loss into dementia in older adults are cognitive training and physical activity. There are currently no effective treatments for dementia; therefore, preventative strategies to delay or prevent the onset of dementia are of critical importance.Objective: The aim of this study was to determine the relative effectiveness of simultaneous performance of memory training and aerobic exercise to a sequential performance intervention on memory functioning in older adults.Methods: 55 older adults (aged 60- 75) with subjective memory impairments (non-demented and non-MCI) completed the intervention that consisted of 90-minute small group classes held twice weekly. Participants were randomized to either 4-weeks of supervised strategy-based memory training done simultaneously while stationary cycling (SIM) or sequentially after the stationary cycling (SEQ). Standardized neurocognitive measures of memory, executive functioning, speed of processing, attention, and cognitive flexibility were assessed at baseline and post-intervention.Results: The SIM group, but not the SEQ group, had a significant improvement on composite memory following the intervention (t(51) = 2.7, p = 0.01, effect size (ES) = 0.42) and transfer to non-trained reasoning abilities (t(51) = 6.0, ES = 0.49) and complex attention (t(51) = 3.1, p = 0.003, ES = 0.70). Conversely, the SEQ group, but not the SIM, showed significant improvement in executive functioning (t(51) = 5.0, p = 0.0001, ES = 0.96).Conclusion: These findings indicate that a 4-week simultaneous memory training and aerobic exercise program is sufficient to improve memory, attention, and reasoning abilities in older adults. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]