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Objectives: We examined overall and incremental effectiveness of 2-dose varicella vaccination in preventing community transmission of varicella among children aged 4 to 18 years in 2 active surveillance sites. One-dose varicella vaccine effectiveness (VE) was examined in those aged 1 to 18 years., Methods: From May 2009 through June 2011, varicella cases identified during active surveillance in Antelope Valley, CA and Philadelphia, PA were enrolled into a matched case-control study. Matched controls within 2 years of the patient's age were selected from immunization registries. A standardized questionnaire was administered to participants' parents, and varicella vaccination history was obtained from health care provider, immunization registry, or parent records. We used conditional logistic regression to estimate varicella VE against clinically diagnosed and laboratory-confirmed varicella., Results: A total of 125 clinically diagnosed varicella cases and 408 matched controls were enrolled. Twenty-nine cases were laboratory confirmed. One-dose VE (1-dose versus unvaccinated) was 75.6% (95% confidence interval [CI], 38.7%-90.3%) in preventing any clinically diagnosed varicella and 78.1% (95% CI, 12.7%-94.5%) against moderate or severe, clinically diagnosed disease (≥50 lesions). Among subjects aged ≥4 years, 2-dose VE (2-dose versus unvaccinated) was 93.6% (95% CI, 75.6%-98.3%) against any varicella and 97.9% (95% CI, 83.0%-99.7%) against moderate or severe varicella. Incremental effectiveness (2-dose versus 1-dose) was 87.5% against clinically diagnosed varicella and 97.3% against laboratory-confirmed varicella., Conclusions: Two-dose varicella vaccination offered better protection against varicella from community transmission among school-aged children compared with 1-dose vaccination., (Copyright © 2016 by the American Academy of Pediatrics.)

This article describes the epidemiology of varicella in one state prison in California during 2010 and 2011, control measures implemented, and associated costs. Eleven varicella cases were reported, of which nine were associated with two outbreaks. One outbreak consisted of three cases and the second consisted of six cases with two generations of spread. Among exposed inmates serologically tested, 98% (643/656) were varicella-zoster virus seropositive. The outbreaks resulted in > 1,000 inmates exposed, 444 staff exposures, and > $160,000 in costs. The authors documented the challenges and costs associated with controlling and managing varicella in a prison setting. A screening policy for evidence of varicella immunity for incoming inmates and staff and vaccination of susceptible persons has the potential to mitigate the impact of future outbreaks and reduce resources necessary to manage cases and outbreaks., (© The Author(s) 2014.)

Aim: To assess the burden of congenital and perinatal cytomegalovirus (CMV) disease among infants hospitalized in neonatal intensive care units (NICUs)., Methods: CMV infection was defined as a report of positive CMV viral culture or polymerase chain reaction at any time since birth in an infant hospitalized in a NICU reporting to California Perinatal Quality Care Collaborative during 2005-2010., Results: One hundred and fifty-six (1.7 per 1000) infants were reported with CMV infection, representing an estimated 5% of the expected number of live births with symptomatic CMV disease. Prevalence was higher among infants with younger gestational ages and lower birth weights. Infants with CMV infection had significantly longer hospital stays and 14 (9%) died., Conclusions: Reported prevalence of CMV infection in NICUs represents a fraction of total expected disease burden from CMV in the newborn period, likely resulting from underdiagnosis and milder symptomatic cases that do not require NICU care. More complete ascertainment of infants with congenital CMV infection that would benefit from antiviral treatment may reduce the burden of CMV disease in this population.

Varicella, a contagious viral disease, is typically self-limited but can result in serious complications, especially among persons who are immunocompromised. On April 10, 2012, a girl aged 4 years with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) was exposed to a mildly ill cousin who developed a varicella rash 2 days later. The episode was reported to the child's oncologist after 13 days. The girl was prescribed 7 days of oral acyclovir for prophylaxis and concurrently began her scheduled chemotherapy, which included a 5-day course of dexamethasone (prednisone equivalent dose of 23 mg/day). Twenty-two days after her varicella exposure, the girl was taken to an emergency department for fever and abdominal pain. She was treated symptomatically; her caretakers were instructed to discontinue chemotherapy and to follow up with her oncologist. Two days later, the girl returned to the emergency department with a generalized rash. She was hospitalized and treated with intravenous acyclovir and antibiotics. However, she developed multiorgan failure and died on May 7. Varicella was confirmed by polymerase chain reaction testing, and no alternative diagnoses were found for her acute illness.

Objective: One-dose varicella vaccination for children was introduced in the United States in 1995. In 2006, a second dose was recommended to further decrease varicella disease and outbreaks. We describe the impact of the 2-dose vaccination program on varicella incidence, severity, and outbreaks in 2 varicella active surveillance areas., Methods: We examined varicella incidence rates and disease characteristics in Antelope Valley (AV), CA, and West Philadelphia, PA, and varicella outbreak characteristics in AV during 1995-2010., Results: In 2010, varicella incidence was 0.3 cases per 1000 population in AV and 0.1 cases per 1000 population in West Philadelphia: 76% and 67% declines, respectively, since 2006 and 98% declines in both sites since 1995; incidence declined in all age groups during 2006-2010. From 2006-2010, 61.7% of case patients in both surveillance areas had been vaccinated with 1 dose of varicella vaccine and 7.5% with 2 doses. Most vaccinated case patients had <50 lesions with no statistically significant differences among 1- and 2-dose cases (62.8% and 70.3%, respectively). Varicella-related hospitalizations during 2006-2010 declined >40% compared with 2002-2005 and >85% compared with 1995-1998. Twelve varicella outbreaks occurred in AV during 2007-2010, compared with 47 during 2003-2006 and 236 during 1995-1998 (P < .01)., Conclusions: Varicella incidence, hospitalizations, and outbreaks in 2 active surveillance areas declined substantially during the first 5 years of the 2-dose varicella vaccination program. Declines in incidence across all ages, including infants who are not eligible for varicella vaccination, and adults, in whom vaccination levels are low, provide evidence of the benefit of high levels of immunity in the population.

Background: Herpes zoster (HZ) vaccine was recommended in the United States to reduce HZ-associated morbidity. Vaccination may reduce HZ-associated mortality, but no strategy exists to monitor mortality trends., Methods: We validated HZ coding on death certificates from California, using hospital records as the gold standard, and applied the results to national-level data to estimate HZ mortality., Results: In the validation phase of the study, among 40 available hospital records listing HZ as the underlying cause of death, HZ was the underlying cause for 21 (52.5%) and a contributing cause for 5 (12.5%). Among the 21 hospital records listing HZ as the underlying cause of death, the median age of decedents was 84 years (range, 50-99); 60% had no contraindications for HZ vaccination. Of the 37 available records listing HZ as a contributing cause of death, HZ was a contributing cause for 2 (5.4%) and the underlying cause for 6 (16.2%). Nationally, in the 7 years preceding the HZ vaccination program, the average annual number of deaths in which HZ was reported as the underlying cause of death was 149; however, based on our validation study, we estimate the true number was 78 (range, 31-118)., Conclusions: National death certificate data greatly overestimate deaths in which HZ is the underlying or contributing cause of death. The HZ vaccination program could prevent some HZ-related deaths, but the impact will be difficult to assess using national mortality data.

Context: Approximately 1 million episodes of herpes zoster occur annually in the United States. Although prelicensure data provided evidence that herpes zoster vaccine works in a select study population under idealized circumstances, the vaccine needs to be evaluated in field conditions., Objective: To evaluate risk of herpes zoster after receipt of herpes zoster vaccine among individuals in general practice settings., Design, Setting, and Participants: A retrospective cohort study from January 1, 2007, through December 31, 2009, of individuals enrolled in the Kaiser Permanente Southern California health plan. Participants were immunocompetent community-dwelling adults aged 60 years or older. The 75,761 members in the vaccinated cohort were age matched (1:3) to 227,283 unvaccinated members., Main Outcome Measure: Incidence of herpes zoster., Results: Herpes zoster vaccine recipients were more likely to be white, women, with more outpatient visits, and fewer chronic diseases. The number of herpes zoster cases among vaccinated individuals was 828 in 130,415 person-years (6.4 per 1000 person-years; 95% confidence interval [CI], 5.9-6.8), and for unvaccinated individuals it was 4606 in 355,659 person-years (13.0 per 1000 person-years; 95% CI, 12.6-13.3). In adjusted analysis, vaccination was associated with a reduced risk of herpes zoster (hazard ratio [HR], 0.45; 95% CI, 0.42-0.48); this reduction occurred in all age strata and among individuals with chronic diseases. Risk of herpes zoster differed by vaccination status to a greater magnitude than the risk of unrelated acute medical conditions, suggesting results for herpes zoster were not due to bias. Ophthalmic herpes zoster (HR, 0.37; 95% CI, 0.23-0.61) and hospitalizations coded as herpes zoster (HR, 0.35; 95% CI, 0.24-0.51) were less likely among vaccine recipients., Conclusions: Among immunocompetent community-dwelling adults aged 60 years or older, receipt of the herpes zoster vaccine was associated with a lower incidence of herpes zoster. The risk was reduced among all age strata and among individuals with chronic diseases.

Goals: To determine the etiologies of chronic liver disease among American Indians., Background: American Indians are disproportionately affected by chronic liver disease, yet little is known about its underlying etiologies in this group., Study: We conducted a cross-sectional prevalence study at medical centers serving American Indian populations in Arizona and California. Patients' records were reviewed to identify those with chronic liver disease (ICD-9 code for chronic liver disease or 2 abnormal liver tests > or = 6 mo apart). ICD-9 codes and laboratory findings were abstracted to determine etiologies., Results: Of the 30,698 American Indian patients seen at the Arizona center during 2000 to 2002, 1496 (4.9%) had chronic liver disease, including 268/1496 (17.9%) with decompensated cirrhosis. Etiologies included alcohol (621; 41.5%), hepatitis C (103; 6.9%), both (136; 9.1%), or nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (191; 12.8%). Among alcohol-related liver disease patients tested for hepatitis C, 32.2% were positive. Of the 6074 American Indian patients seen at the California center during 2002 to 2003, 344 (5.7%) had chronic liver disease, including 45/344 (13.1%) with decompensated cirrhosis. Etiologies included alcohol (57; 16.6%) hepatitis C (83; 24.1%), and both (42; 12.2%). In one-third of chronic liver disease patient at the 2 centers, no etiology could be identified; 30% to 45% had not been tested for hepatitis C., Conclusions: Alcohol-related liver disease and hepatitis C were the most commonly identified etiologies among these American Indian patients with chronic liver disease in clinical care. Identifying American Indian and Alaska Native patients with chronic liver disease and providing treatment are critical for reducing disease burden.