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Water is a scarce, strategic resource and the most important input for economic development, especially in agricultural countries such as Brazil. Cocoa production is directly related to water availability, and, as climate changes, selecting drought-tolerant genotypes is vital to keep cacao crops sustainable. Here, we evaluated cacao genotypes under irrigated and water-stressed conditions and selected drought-tolerant ones based on nutritional and physiological traits. Thirty-nine genotypes were monitored for three years for agronomic traits and higher fruit yield. After this evaluation, the 18 most promising genotypes were evaluated in a randomized block design, under a 2 (with and without irrigation) × 18 (genotypes) factorial arrangement, with three replicates and five plants per plot. We evaluated seven physiological and 11 nutritional traits, selecting genotypes based on the Genotype-by-Trait Biplot approach. Significant effects (p < 0.05) were observed for the nutritional traits N, P, Mg, S, Zn, Cu, Mn and for the physiological traits CO2 assimilation rate (A), stomatal conductance (gs), transpiration (E), intercellular and atmospheric CO2 concentrations (Ci/Ca), intrinsic water use efficiency (A/gs), instantaneous water use efficiency (A/E), and instantaneous carboxylation efficiency (A/Ci), as determined by analysis of variance. The genotype × irrigation treatment interaction was significant (p < 0.05) for the traits A, gs, and E. Genotypes CP 41, CP 43, and CCN 51 exhibited superior performance for both nutritional and physiological traits (A, gs, and E). In the irrigated environment, CP 41 showed superiority in traits such as P, A/E, A/gs, Mn, S, and Zn. Conversely, under non-irrigated conditions, CP 43 exhibited better performance in nutritional properties, specifically Mn, Mg, and Zn. Notably, in both irrigated and non-irrigated environments, CCN 51 excelled in key physiological traits, including A/Ci, A/E, and A/gs. This robust performance across diverse conditions suggests that these three genotypes possess physiological mechanisms to endure water-stressed conditions. Our research can generate valuable insights into these genotypes informing suitable choices for cocoa cultivation, especially in the context of global climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cacao (Theobroma cacoa L.) is an important tropical fruit tree used in chocolate production. Among the biotic problems interfering with fruit production, phytopathogenic fungi stand out. During a visit to cocoa production areas in the municipality of Medicilândia, Pará, Brazil (Amazon region), we observed cocoa fruits with dark lesions and greyish‐white cottony mycelia growth. In order to determine the aetiological agent's identity, we extracted DNA and amplified part of the TEF‐1α and RBP2 genes and compared them with sequences in GenBank using the BLASTn tool. Based on molecular results and phylogenetic analysis, the isolates were identified as Calonectria hawksworthii. Inoculations in cacao fruits showed symptoms after 6 days and were similar to those collected in the field, confirming the postulates. This study is the first report of Ca. hawksworthii causing cocoa bean rot worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cacao-based agroforestry systems can sequester much soil carbon (C), but information on soil organic matter (SOM) chemical composition within aggregates still needs to be available. This study aimed to evaluate (1) the impact of forest or pasture conversion to cacao AFS by assessing the chemistry of the Cm fraction, considering this as the primary C pool in the studied soils, and (2) which C chemical compounds are associated with the aggregate density fractions. Soil chemical characterization was performed using solid-state 13 C CPMAS NMR. The conversion of pasture into cacao AFS did not impact the chemical composition of C. However, converting natural forest into cacao AFS provided differences in the composition of C compounds, mainly in macroaggregates. Notably, the young rubber tree was more prevalent in promoting changes in the chemical composition of C than cacao. The chemical composition of C in Cm density fractions did not vary across the land-use systems, and it was mostly represented by alkyl-C and O/N-alkyl-C forms. The composition of POM fractions was mainly aryl-C. The knowledge of soil organic matter chemical composition proved to be an adequate tool for application in models to establish management strategies and guide policy toward consolidating low-carbon agriculture in Brazil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The application of precision agriculture in cocoa and papaya cultivation in Brazil is still incipient. This study aimed to evaluate the spatial variability of the physical attributes of soil cultivated with a consortium of papaya and cocoa. The study was conducted in two sampling grids of 50 points, in two areas cultivated with papaya and cocoa with different planting times (three and eleven months). The soil attributes soil resistance to penetration (RP) and soil gravimetric moisture (UG) were determined at soil depths of 0–20, 20–40 and 40–60 cm. The data were submitted to an exploratory and descriptive analysis. Subsequently, a geostatistical analysis was performed to quantify spatial dependence and then interpolation of the data through kriging. The maps showed weak spatial variability for the UG and RP. In the two areas, it was observed that the depth of 0–20 cm had a lower RP (1.7 Mpa) and a higher UG (40 g g−1), and as the depth was higher, had a higher RP (4.4 Mpa) and a lower UG (38 g g−1). Area 1 presented higher RP values in depth, showing greater susceptibility to compaction. The area characterized by the consortium of papaya and cocoa presented more susceptible to compaction. The mechanical resistance of the soil to penetration was more critical in the 40–60 cm layer for the two consortia evaluated, evidencing areas with possible restriction to plant growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Moniliasis caused by the fungus Moniliophthora roreri is one of the most destructive cacao diseases in tropical America. In 2021, the presence of the pathogen was confirmed in cacao plantations in Brazil. This is the first proteomic study of the M. roreri protein profile of ungerminated spores and mycelium compared by 2D SDS‐PAGE (Two‐dimensional gel electrophoresis) associated with mass spectrometry. A total of 446 spots were detected on ungerminated spores gels and 402 spots on M. roreri mycelial gels. A total of 29 proteins were identified from the ungerminated spores, 21 of them were exclusive, and 53 were identified in the mycelium, 16 of them were exclusive. Most of the identified proteins at both development stages were categorized as being involved in metabolic processes, reduction/oxidation processes, and protein synthesis and folding. The interaction networks observed expand the known interactions of these proteins, resulting in eight functional clusters for proteins identified in ungerminated spores and seven clusters for mycelial proteins. In addition, a biological model of ungerminated spores and mycelium with cell location of proteins was constructed. The results contribute to a better understanding of the metabolic mechanisms of M. roreri during dormancy and vegetative development, which can support future studies for strategies to control moniliasis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A set of diseases caused by fungi and oomycetes are responsible for large losses in annual world cocoa production. Managing the impact caused by these diseases is very complex because a common solution has yet to be found for different pathogens. In this context, the systematic knowledge of Theobroma cacao L. pathogens' molecular characteristics may help researchers understand the possibilities and limitations of cocoa disease management strategies. This work systematically organized and summarized the main findings of omics studies of T. cacao eukaryotic pathogens, focusing on the plant–pathogen interaction and production dynamics. Using the PRISMA protocol and a semiautomated process, we selected papers from the Scopus and Web of Science databases and collected data from the selected papers. From the initial 3169 studies, 149 were selected. The first author's affiliations were mostly from two countries, Brazil (55%) and the USA (22%). The most frequent genera were Moniliophthora (105 studies), Phytophthora (59 studies) and Ceratocystis (13 studies). The systematic review database includes papers reporting the whole-genome sequence from six cocoa pathogens and evidence of some necrosis-inducing-like proteins, which are common in T. cacao pathogen genomes. This review contributes to the knowledge about T. cacao diseases, providing an integrated discussion of T. cacao pathogens' molecular characteristics, common mechanisms of pathogenicity and how this knowledge is produced worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agroforestry systems (AFS) promote a continuous deposition of organic material in the soil via litter and roots. Litter has a diversity of organic compounds with different chemical complexities, and which act as raw materials in forming and maintaining soil organic carbon. The objective of this study was to characterize the chemical composition of litter provided in soils under natural forest, rubber tree and cacao AFSs of different ages (old and young AFS) and a pure rubber plantation. Litter samples were collected in each of the AFSs in both cacao and rubber lines. The determination of functional groups was performed by Diffuse Reflectance Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy. The results showed that the old AFS (cacao line) mainly presented bands associated with aromatic compounds (1600−1500 cm−1), while the highest absorbance intensity observed in the old AFS (rubber line) was in the range of 1097−1040 cm−1, attributed to the presence of cellulose. The main difference observed between cacao line and rubber line in the young AFS was the presence of polysaccharide functional groups (1380−1240 cm−1) in the rubber line. The similarity between the young AFS cacao line and rubber line, old AFS (rubber line) and the pure rubber plantation can be explained by the presence of phenolic (3690, 3620, 3290 cm−1) and aliphatic (2922 cm−1) compounds. The natural forest was dissimilar to the other systems mainly in the bands around 1051−1040 cm−1 and 918 cm−1, suggesting a forest litter with a predominance of less complex chemical structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Witches' broom, caused by Moniliophthora perniciosa, is the most important cacao disease in Brazil, and the final objective of this study is increasing the level and durability of resistance to this fungus, through the association of different alleles or genes favorable to the character, for the generation of new cocoa varieties. It was conducted, for 10 years, the evaluation of the number of vegetative brooms and cushions brooms per plant, of progenies from a cross breeding scheme in North Carolina II design, with the clones: Be 4, Cepec 89, CSul 7, EEG 29, ICS 98, Oc 67, RB 39 and Scavina 6, as group 1 of progenitors, and CCN 10, CCN 51, Cepec 86, ICS 9, IMC 76, Na 33, P4b, and SGu 54, as group 2. For both groups there were differences in terms of the general combining ability and specific combining ability. Differences among progenitors and among progenies were also found for the tendencies in the evolution of the number of brooms over the evaluation period. And it was possible to increase the level and durability of resistance through the association of alleles or genes favorable to this character, all the three results confirming the original hypothesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tropical forests such as the Atlantic Forest are under constant threats from the impact of human activities, mostly being caused by the loss of native forest areas for other land uses. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of changes in land use for pasture and cacao cultivation on the richness and composition of Odonata assemblages in comparison to native forest areas. We also evaluated the species as possible indicators of these different land uses. In total, 64 streams were sampled in southern Bahia, Brazil. A total of 84 species were recorded. The results indicated that changes in land use modify the richness and composition of Odonata assemblages. Regarding composition, our results indicated a difference among the assemblages in the three land use areas and that the native areas maintain more stable assemblages. According to the indicator species analysis, 13 species were recorded as possible bioindicators for different land uses. Changes in aquatic ecosystems and their surroundings caused by different land uses a select group of different species groups, modifying Odonata diversity among these areas. Notably, land uses that maintain a certain integrity of the environment, as in the case of cacao cultivation, are the best alternatives for conserving Odonata biodiversity in comparison with pasture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In southern Bahia, Brazil's traditional cacao region, cacao is mostly grown under the shade of thinned Atlantic Forest (known as cabruca). These agroforestry systems are gradually being replaced by unshaded cacao monocultures that might be more vulnerable to changes in climate; however, the impacts of climate change have not been evaluated yet. We assessed the impact of climate change on the climatic suitability of cacao plantations in southern Bahia and evaluated to what extent the cabrucas reduce the vulnerability of cacao as compared to unshaded plantations. We measured the maximum temperature in a gradient of canopy cover during the warmest month of the year and projected ecological niche models (MaxEnt) on climate projections for 2050 simulating the microclimate of three production systems: cabrucas, intermediate shading, and unshaded plantations. We found that canopy cover drastically reduces daily maximum temperature, so that understory temperature in cabrucas can be up to 6.0 °C lower than in unshaded plantations. We show for the first time that all projected environmental changes negatively affect cacao in southern Bahia, diminishing its climatic suitability and reducing overall suitable areas across the region. More importantly, this study is the first one to show that cabrucas can reduce the negative impacts of climate change for cacao, especially where temperature extremes approach or exceed crop tolerance limits. We conclude that maximizing short-term profits by implementing unshaded monocultures will likely lead to production losses in the long term. Cabrucas have a central role in reducing the vulnerability of cacao to climate change and since these traditional agroforestry systems cannot be quickly restored, their conservation should be an important goal of agricultural policies in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Monalonion bondari is an important Theobroma cacao. pest in Brazil and information about their natural predators is lacking. Thus, the aim of this study was to record for the first time the predation of M. bondari by Zelus pedestris in the field and confirm this predatory activity in the laboratory. In the laboratory, predation by Z. pedestris resulted in the mortality of 45% of nymphs and 40% of adults of M. bondari. This is the first record of Z. pedestris preying on M. bondari and can be a potential species to be used for the biological control of this pest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cacao plantations from South America have been afflicted with the severe fungal disease known as Witches' Broom Disease (WBD), caused by the basidiomycete Moniliophthora perniciosa. Yeasts are increasingly recognized as good fungal biocides, although their application is still mostly restricted to the postharvest control of plant and fruit decay. Their possible utilization in the field, in a preharvest phase, is nevertheless promising, particularly if the strains are locally adapted and evolved and if they belong to species considered safe for man and the environment. In this work, a group of yeast strains originating from sugarcane-based fermentative processes in Brazil, the cacao-producing country where the disease is most severe, were tested for their ability to antagonize M. perniciosa in vitro. Wickerhamomyces anomalus LBCM1105 and Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains LBCM1112 from spontaneous fermentations used to produce cachaça , and PE2 widely used in Brazil in the industrial production of bioethanol, efficiently antagonized six strains of M. perniciosa , originating from several South American countries. The two fastest growing fungal strains, both originating from Brazil, were further used to assess the mechanisms underlying the yeasts' antagonism. Yeasts were able to inhibit fungal growth and kill the fungus at three different temperatures, under starvation, at different culture stages, or using an inoculum from old yeast cultures. Moreover, SEM analysis revealed that W. anomalus and S. cerevisiae PE2 cluster and adhere to the hyphae, push their surface, and fuse to them, ultimately draining the cells. This behavior concurs with that classified as necrotrophic parasitism/mycoparasitism. In particular, W. anomalus within the adhered clusters appear to be ligated to each other through roundish groups of fimbriae-like structures filled with bundles of microtubule-sized formations, which appear to close after cells detach, leaving a scar. SEM also revealed the formation of tube-like structures apparently connecting yeast to hypha. This evidence suggests W. anomalus cells form a network of yeast cells connecting with each other and with hyphae, supporting a possible cooperative collective killing and feeding strategy. The present results provide an initial step toward the formulation of a new eco-friendly and effective alternative for controlling cacao WBD using live yeast biocides. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to evaluate the variability, partition, and correlation of Fe, Mn, and Zn in the leaves and fruit components (pod husk, pulp, tegument, and cotyledons) of cacao trees. These contents were also correlated with chemical attributes of the soils in regions classified as humid (H), humid to sub-humid (SH), and sub-humid to dry (SD) in the South Bahia, Brazil. Soils samples were collected, along with leaves and fruits from the PH16 clone of the cacao tree, for analysis of Fe, Mn, and Zn. Descriptive statistics and Pearson's correlation were applied, as well as Shapiro Wilk's normality test and Tukey's test for comparison of the climate regions. The accumulation order for Fe and Zn in the fruit components was tegument > pod husk > leaf > cotyledons; and for Mn the order was pod husk > leaf > tegument > cotyledons. The increase in hydric restriction, from the most humid region to the driest, causes natural bioconcentration of Fe, Mn, and Zn in the fruit components used to produce food (cotyledons and pulp). The Mn contents in the leaf can be used as indicators of its accumulation in the cotyledon and cacao pulp. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To analyze the DNA virome associated with cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) trees showing virus-like symptoms in Brazil (BR) and Puerto Rico (PR) during 2018-2019, total DNA was isolated from symptomatic leaves and subjected to high-throughput Illumina sequencing. The assembled complete badnaviral genome sequences were verified by PCR amplification, cloning, and DNA sequencing. Based on pairwise distances and phylogenetic analysis, three badnaviral genomes were identified, and these viruses were found to be isolates of the previously described cacao mild mosaic virus (CaMMV). The three genomes were 7,520, 7,524, and 7,514 bp in size for the isolates CaMMV-BR321, CaMMV-BR322, and CaMMV-PR3, respectively. Each genome contained four predicted open reading frames: ORFs 1-3 and ORFY. The CaMMV-PR3 isolate was identified as a probable recombinant, with a CaMMV-BR-like virus as the major parent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The illegal sale of endangered elasmobranchs has been recorded in a number of different Brazilian states, where sharks and rays are being marketed primarily as 'cação' or 'viola'. Brazil is ranked among the top 10 nations worldwide that harvest most sharks, causing an immeasurable impact on the local elasmobranch populations.The present study applied the DNA barcoding technique, based on the cytochrome C oxidase subunit I gene, for the molecular identification of the elasmobranch species sold as processed products under the generic names of 'cação', 'mangona', 'azul', 'cambeva', 'fiuso' and 'lombo preto', in the fish market of the city of Florianópolis, capital of the state of Santa Catarina, Brazil.Nine elasmobranch species were identified in the 56 samples analysed, including six sharks and three rays, representing six families, the Carcharhinidae, Sphyrnidae, Squatinidae, Arhynchobatidae, Myliobatidae and Gymnuridae. Prionace glauca, identified in more than half (56%) of the samples analysed, is listed as Near Threatened by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature.Six species identified in the present study, Sphyrna zygaena, Sphyrna lewini, Squatina guggenheim, Carcharhinus signatus, Gymnura altavela and Rioraja agassizii, are under some level of risk of extinction, while two others (Rhizoprionodon lalandii and Myliobatis goodei) are listed as Data Deficient.Our results indicate that the commercial exploitation of endemic sharks and rays at risk of extinction is commonplace in southern Brazil. This reinforces the need for more systematic monitoring of the trade in fishery products and more effective application of the environmental legislation and conservation programmes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gabohyla pauloalvini is a small Neotropical hylid, known only from three localities besides its type locality. Knowledge about its natural history is scarce and we present the first data about its diet. We conducted our fieldwork during the rainy period between November and December of the years 2014 and 2015. Thirty-eight G. pauloalvini individuals, collected in a semi-permanent pond inside a "cabruca" (cacao plantation shaded by trees), municipality of Ilhéus, Bahia, Brazil, were stomach-flushed. All stomach contents were identified to the lower taxonomic category as possible. The Index of Relative Importance (IRI) revealed that Formicidae was the most important prey category for G. pauloalvini. We assume that G. pauloalvini is an ant specialist. Diet records for others species of the tribe Sphaenorhynchini showed mainly ants as prey items, which reinforces an ecological synapomorphy for this tribe. Beyond diet, we also reported observations of possible parental care performed by G. pauloalvini females. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Large ground-dwelling Neotropical gamebirds are highly threatened by habitat loss and hunting, but conservationists rarely attempt to distinguish between these two threats in the management of populations. We used three different types of species records to determine the status (i.e. persistence level) of the Endangered red-billed curassow Crax blumenbachii in 14 forest remnants in north-east Brazil, as either persistent, precarious or extirpated. We related these persistence levels to variables measured in a 2-km buffer radius, including variables associated with habitat quality (proportion of forest cover, length of rivers, patch density, distance from rivers) and hunting pressure (proportion of cacao agroforests and farmlands, length of roads, total area occupied by settlements, distance from roads and from settlements). Curassows were more persistent in forest patches located (1) more distant from settlements, (2) in landscapes with few settlements, (3) in landscapes with a high incidence of roads, (4) in a mosaic with a high proportion of forest, shaded cacao agroforest and farmland, and (5) more distant from other forest patches. Hunting pressure potentially exerts more influence on persistence than habitat quality: (1) hunting pressure submodels had a higher explanatory power than habitat quality submodels, (2) final models comprised four hunting pressure variables but only two habitat quality variables, and (3) hunting pressure variables appeared in all models whereas habitat quality variables appeared in only one final model. If hunting pressure is driving declines in curassows, regions with low human presence and a high proportion of forest cover are recommended for establishing new reserves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While soil salinization is a major concern for agriculture worldwide, the application of sodium (Na) can stimulate growth in many plant species, due to its ability to replace potassium (K) in some physiological functions. We present an overview of the potential and risks associated with replacing KCl fertilizer with a mixture of KCl and NaCl in tropical plantations, with a focus on Eucalyptus. A wide range of responses of Eucalyptus species to the salinization of the soil is well documented and the planting of Eucalyptus rows in salinity-damaged landscapes has been used in Australia to lower the water table and reduce soil salinization. A positive effect of NaCl application on Eucalyptus growth in K-deficient environments has been demonstrated in hydroponics, which is consistent with comprehensive studies conducted on entire rotations in Brazil. The addition of NaCl to K-deficient soils increased above-ground biomass at harvest in E. grandis plantations by a factor of 1.4, whereas the addition of the same amount of KCl increased biomass by a factor of 2. A comparison between KCl and K 2 SO 4 applications suggested a positive response of E. grandis to Cl, in addition to the response to Na. The effects of Na application on the physiology of E. grandis support the hypothesis of a functional role for Na in K-deficient soils. Consistent results have been reported on the physiology of olive tree, coconut palm and cocoa tree. Atmospheric inputs of Na depend on the distance from the ocean, ranging from approximately 30 to 5 kg ha-1 yr-1 in coastal and inland forests, respectively. Na is an essential nutrient for animals, maintaining homeostasis and playing a crucial role in neural networks. Substantial quantities of Na are routinely fed to animals in extensive livestock farming. A growing body of evidence suggests that a shortage of Na can limit the activity of insects, particularly plant decomposers. The application of Na in tropical plantations could therefore accelerate the release of nutrients during litter decomposition, thereby promoting tree growth. However, Na application could also stimulate herbivory and lead to leaf area losses. We recommend setting up multi-location experiments covering a wide range of soils and climates in tropical regions, for perennial species of commercial interest. In-depth studies should be carried out on certain sites to understand how tree physiology, soil functioning and herbivory are influenced by the addition of NaCl. • The application of NaCl greatly enhances Eucalyptus growth in K-deficient soil. • Consistent results were reported for Eucalyptus , coconut, olive and cocoa trees. • A shortage of Na can limit insect activity and influence litter decay and herbivory. • Multi-site experiments are needed to understand the response of perennial species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Black pod disease, caused by Phytophthora species, is among the main limiting factors of cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) production. High incidence levels of black pod disease have been reported in Brazil, being induced by Phytophthora capsici , Phytophthora citrophthora , Phytophthora heveae , and Phytophthora palmivora. To assess the diversity of Phytophthora species affecting cacao in Brazil, 40 new isolates were obtained from cacao pods exhibiting symptoms of black pod disease collected in different smallholder farms in 2017. Further, ten cacao-infecting isolates morphologically identified as P. citrophthora and P. palmivora were molecularly characterized. The genomic regions beta-tubulin, elongation factor 1 alpha, heat shock protein 90, and internal transcribed spacer, and the mitochondrially encoded cytochrome c oxidase I and II genes were PCR-amplified and Sanger-sequenced from the cacao-infecting Phytophthora isolates. The morphological characterization and evaluation of the mycelial growth rates for the Phytophthora isolates were performed in vitro. Based on the molecular analysis and morphological comparisons, 19 isolates were identified as P. palmivora (clade 4). Interestingly, 31 isolates grouped together in the phylogenetic tree and were placed apart from previously known species in Phytophthora clade 2. Therefore, these isolates are considered as a new species herein referred to as Phytophthora theobromicola sp. nov., which produced papillate, semipapillate, and persistent sporangia on simple sporangiophores. The P. palmivora isolates were identified as A1 mating type by pairing each isolate with known A1 and A2 tester strains of P. capsici , but no oogonia/antheridia were observed when P. theobromicola was paired with the different tester strains. The P. theobromicola and P. citrophthora isolates showed higher mycelial growth rates, when compared to P. palmivora , on different media at 10, 15, and 20°C, but similar values were observed when grown on clarified CA media at 25 and 30°C. The pathogenicity tests carried out on pods of four cacao clones (CCN51, PS1319, Cepec2004, and CP49) showed significant variability among the isolates of both Phytophthora species, with P. theobromicola inducing higher rates of necrotic lesion expansion, when compared to P. palmivora. Here, two Phytophthora species were found associated with black pod disease in the state of Bahia, Brazil, and the previously undescribed P. theobromicola seems to be prevalent in field conditions. This is the first report of P. theobromicola on T. cacao. Also, these findings are crucial to improve the disease control strategies, and for the development of cacao materials genetically resistant to Phytophthora. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Witches' broom caused by Moniliophthora perniciosa is the main disease of cacao (Theobroma cacao) in Brazil. The fungus is known to occur on other host families and these populations have been addressed in the literature as biotypes: C (Malvaceae); H (Malpighiaceae); L (Bignoniaceae) and S (Solanaceae). No complete elucidation of the phylogenetic relationships of isolates obtained from this disparate host range appears in the literature. One member of H (ex Heteropterys acutifolia) has been described as a distinct species. But should other biotypes be also recognized as distinct taxa? In the present study, a survey yielding 24 isolates of M. perniciosa from ten hosts and covering a wide range of geographic regions in Brazil was undertaken. These isolates were compared with those from T. cacao using three DNA regions for the phylogenetic analyses: ITS, LSU and RPB1. Morphology was also examined. All isolates in this study were found to belong to M. perniciosa , including the population from H. acutifolia , formerly treated as Moniliophthora brasiliensis but reduced here to a synonym of M. perniciosa. This species ranged from pathogenic to a previously unreported occurrence as a non-pathogenic endophyte in the Atlantic rainforest tree Allophylus edulis (Sapindaceae). M. perniciosa was recorded on a range of solanaceous hosts (16 species) over a wide variety of ecosystems. The ecological and evolutionary significance of these novel findings are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Organismal distributions in human‐modified landscapes largely depend on the capacity of any given species to adapt to changes in habitat structure and quality. The golden‐headed lion tamarin (GHLT; Leontopithecus chrysomelas) is an Endangered primate from the Brazilian Atlantic Forest whose remaining populations occupy heterogeneous landscapes consisting primarily of shade cacao (Theobroma cacao) agroforestry, locally known as cabrucas. This cash crop can coexist with high densities of native tree species and holds a significant proportion of the native fauna, but its widely extolled wildlife‐friendly status is increasingly threatened by management intensification. Although this potentially threatens to reduce the distribution of GHLTs, the main determinants of tamarin's occupancy of cabrucas remain unknown, thereby limiting our ability to design and implement appropriate conservation practices. We surveyed 16 cabruca patches in southern Bahia, Brazil, and used occupancy modeling to identify the best predictors of GHLT patch occupancy. Key explanatory variables included vegetation structure, critical resources, landscape context, human disturbance, and predation pressure. We found a negative relationship between GHLT occupancy and the prevalence of jackfruit trees (Artocarpus heterophylus), which is likely associated with the low representation of other key food species for GHLTs. Conversely, cabrucas retaining large‐diameter canopy trees have a higher probability of GHLT occupancy, likely because these trees provide preferred sleeping sites. Thus, key large tree resources (food and shelter) are currently the main drivers of GHLT occupancy within cabruca agroecosystems. Since both factors can be directly affected by crop management practices, intensification of cabrucas may induce significant habitat impacts on GHLT populations over much of their remaining range‐wide distribution. Research Highlights: Key habitat resources (food and sleeping sites) are the main drivers of golden‐headed lion tamarin (GHLT) occupancy in cabrucas, and they are affected by management practices. Intensification of management can induce significant impacts on GHLT persistence in cabrucas in much of its remaining habitat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to select genotypes resistant to witches' broom (WB) and black pod (BP), major cacao diseases in Brazil, as well as incorporate resistance genes to moniliasis supplemented by clones EET75 and UF273, forming populations of second-cycle recurrent selection. Moniliophthora perniciosa (2 × 105 basidiospores/mL) was inoculated on 30-day-old seedlings from 72 different progenies, being assessed 60 days later, and a mixture of four isolates of Phytophthora palmivora (3 × 105 zoospores/mL) was inoculated on leaf discs from 58 progenies, observing lesions after seven days. Significant effects of progeny were observed in the tests of resistance to both diseases (p < 0.05). Scavina-6 expressed resistance to both pathogens, 26 crosses did not differ from free-pollinated progenies of Scavina- 6 for WB, and ten crosses were higher and 27 similar for BP. Eight crosses were largely resistant to both diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Tarsonemidae (Acari: Prostigmata) exhibit a high diversity of feeding habits and morphological structures, which allow them to live in a diversity of habitats. Tarsonemus is the largest genus, with more than 280 described species belonging to three subgenera: Tarsonemus sensu stricto, Chaetotarsonemus and Schaarschmidtia. Eight species of the genus have been reported from Brazil. In addition, there are two new species, Tarsonemus cacaosp. nov. from Theobroma cacao L. (Malvaceae) branches, and Tarsonemus bahiensissp. nov. from Passiflora foetida L. (Passifloraceae) and Etlingera elatior Jack (Zingiberaceae) leaves. Both new species were collected in a cabruca agroforest, a traditional cacao cultivation system in the southern coast region of Bahia state. The new Tarsonemidae are described and illustrated here. Pharyngeal and gnathosomal structures of the new species are compared to other Tarsonemus species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Background: Witches' broom disease (WBD) of cacao (Theobroma cacao L.), caused by Moniliophthora perniciosa, is the most important limiting factor for the cacao production in Brazil. Hence, the development of cacao genotypes with durable resistance is the key challenge for control the disease. Proteomic methods are often used to study the interactions between hosts and pathogens, therefore helping classical plant breeding projects on the development of resistant genotypes. The present study compared the proteomic alterations between two cacao genotypes standard for WBD resistance and susceptibility, in response to M. perniciosa infection at 72 h and 45 days post-inoculation; respectively the very early stages of the biotrophic and necrotrophic stages of the cacao x M. perniciosa interaction. Results: A total of 554 proteins were identified, being 246 in the susceptible Catongo and 308 in the resistant TSH1188 genotypes. The identified proteins were involved mainly in metabolism, energy, defense and oxidative stress. The resistant genotype showed more expressed proteins with more variability associated with stress and defense, while the susceptible genotype exhibited more repressed proteins. Among these proteins, stand out pathogenesis related proteins (PRs), oxidative stress regulation related proteins, and trypsin inhibitors. Interaction networks were predicted, and a complex protein-protein interaction was observed. Some proteins showed a high number of interactions, suggesting that those proteins may function as cross-talkers between these biological functions. Conclusions: We present the first study reporting the proteomic alterations of resistant and susceptible genotypes in the T. cacao x M. perniciosa pathosystem. The important altered proteins identified in the present study are related to key biologic functions in resistance, such as oxidative stress, especially in the resistant genotype TSH1188, that showed a strong mechanism of detoxification. Also, the positive regulation of defense and stress proteins were more evident in this genotype. Proteins with significant roles against fungal plant pathogens, such as chitinases, trypsin inhibitors and PR 5 were also identified, and they may be good resistance markers. Finally, important biological functions, such as stress and defense, photosynthesis, oxidative stress and carbohydrate metabolism were differentially impacted with M. perniciosa infection in each genotype. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The genus Leonseius Chant & McMurtry (Phytoseiidae: Typhlodrominae) was proposed to accommodate Typhloseiopsis regularisDe Leon, 1965, a species with a troubled taxonomic history that was previously classified in the genera Typhlodromus Scheuten, Diadromus Athias-Henriot and Chanteius Wainstein. Due to its Amblyseius-like appearance (long s4, Z4 and Z5, most other setae minute; atypical for a typhlodromine), the poor descriptions of reproductive structures (spermatheca, spermatodactyl), and probably also because at the time it was a monotypic genus, researchers over the years have based the species-level identification of Leonseius regularis mainly on dorsal and ventral idiosomal chaetotaxy and setal length. In a survey of phytoseiid mites conducted in cacao plantations (Theobroma cacao L.: Malvaceae) of the municipality of Ilhéus, Bahia, northeastern Brazil, we identified two distinct morphotypes among specimens initially identified as L. regularis. Herein we provide new morphological data for L. regularis to complement the original description and previous redescriptions, and then describe Leonseius elbanhawyi Carvalho, Ferragut & Oliveira sp. nov., from cacao, distinguishing it from L. regularis by its spermatheca and spermatodactyl. Also, the diagnosis of Leonseius is amended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agricultural diversification can enhance climate resilience, biodiversity conservation, and livelihood in global farming systems. Diverse agroforestry systems with cocoa have been shown to provide all these benefits, but the often-lower yields compared to monocultures limit agroforestry adoption by smallholder farmers. Cocoa yield is pollination-limited, and here, we quantified the effect of hand pollination in cocoa on fruit set, fruit abortion or cherelle wilt, pest and diseases, and number of mature fruits. Experiments were conducted in Bahia, Brazil, along a shade gradient from low [10–30%] to high [70–100%] canopy cover and with cocoa trees grafted with high-yielding varieties. We found on average 331% fruit set, and 300% mature fruit increase (i.e. ripe pods) per tree by enhancing pollination by hand as little as 10% of the flowers/tree, compared to the control (i.e. with only natural pollination). Fruit set, fruit losses, and mature fruit development linked to hand pollination was higher in low compared to highly shaded cocoa areas. We found 31% higher fruit set and 37% higher number of mature fruits in grafted than un-grafted trees. Further, when comparing efforts invested in hand pollination, minimum labor (∼5 min/tree to pollinate 10–30% of the flowers/tree) led to a 871% fruit set and a 750% mature fruit increase under low canopy cover, and intermediate labor (∼15 min/tree to pollinate 40–60% flowers/tree) to a 629% fruit set under high canopy cover. As ∼5–15 min/tree hand pollination can substantially enhance fruit set and number of mature fruits in low as well as high shade management, we recommend performing hand pollination particularly in agroforests under 40–50% canopy cover to create win-win opportunities for high productivity and climate resilience. Future research should focus on the wide range of agroforestry, tree grafting and innovation strategies in all major production regions to capture the long-term variability of hand pollination as a basis to scale-up hand pollination for sustainable cocoa production globally. • Sustainable strategies to improve cocoa yields in agroforestry systems are needed. • Hand pollination by as little as 10% triples fruit set and mature fruits in Brazil's agroforests. • ∼5–15 min hand pollination improved fruit development under low and high canopy cover. • We recommend ∼5–15 min hand pollination in grafted trees under 40–50% canopy cover. • Studies need to address long-term sustainability of hand pollination across cocoa regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Regeneration from seed affects species assembly in plant communities, and temperature is the most important environmental factor controlling the germination process. Thermal dependence of seed germination is thus associated with species occurrence in an ecosystem. Hence, we aimed to investigate the role of temperature on seed germination of ten tree species from the western Brazilian Amazon. Seeds were collected in the state of Rondônia, Brazil, and set to germinate under constant temperatures ranging from 10 to 40°C in germination chambers. We calculated germination capacity (G%), germination rate (GR50, reciprocal of germination time), and thermal parameters, such as cardinal temperatures and thermal time requirements. Most species had a large range of temperatures showing G% ≥80%, with optimal temperature varying from 20 to 40°C. Base temperature ranged from 6 to 12°C and ceiling temperatures were mainly >40°C. Astronium lecointei and Parkia nitida showed high germination capacity under temperatures of 35–40°C, while germination of Theobroma cacao dropped from 100% to zero under temperatures between 37 and 40°C. The climax species Cedrela fissilis had the slowest germination time (10 days) and highest thermal time requirement, while seeds of Enterolobium schomburgkii (a late-successional species) germinated within the first day of the experiment. Rapid recruitment of Amazon species could be favoured with treefall disturbance, which increases temperatures in the understory, but sharp limits might be found in the supra-optimal range of temperatures. Such patterns might indicate different regeneration strategies in the tropical rainforest, providing important information regarding seed germination among Amazon species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We studied the diet of Leptodactylus spixi from a cacao plantation in southern Bahia, Brazil. A total of 109 frogs were manually collected between December 2006 and October 2007 and analysed using a stomach flushing method. Of these, 69 stomachs revealed 168 prey items. Acarina, Orthoptera and Formicidae were the most abundant items, while Orthoptera, Diplopoda and Hemiptera were the most important in terms of frequency of occurrence. With more than 50% of total prey volume and the highest Index of Relative Importance, Orthoptera was considered the dominating prey category for this species in the studied area. The comparison between available potential prey in the environment and diet revealed that L. spixi fed on most present invertebrates. Electivity values were highest for orthopterans, gastropods and dermapterans. We conclude that L. spixi can be considered a "sitand- wait" predator and also a generalist consuming what is available in the environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Brazil is increasingly committed to developing research on the quality of cacao. The objective of this work was to develop a new Cacao Quality Index (CQI) methodology with cacao industry, chocolate flavor, human health and food safety functions, and to show its results in different cacao agroecosystems from the humid region of Bahia. The typical Dystrophic Red-Yellow Argisol, in the cabruca cropping system with 35 shade trees per hectare, reached the highest CQI score. The lowest score obtained from the quality index cacao corresponded to the site characterized by the abrupt Dystrophic Red-Yellow Argisol, in the cabruca cropping system with 60 shade trees per hectare. All cropping sites obtained CQI values between 0.54 and 0.69 and were therefore classified as a regular index. The primary indicators that determined the differences between the highest and lowest CQI score were proteins, total free amino acids, simple carbohydrates (sucrose, fructose and glucose), total acidity, cadmium and barium. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista Brasileira de Engenharia Agricola e Ambiental - Agriambi is the property of Revista Brasileira de Engenharia Agricola e Ambiental and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Cocoa agroforests like the cabrucas of Brazil's Atlantic forest are among the agro-ecosystems with greatest potential for biodiversity conservation. Despite a global trend for their intensification, cocoa agroforests are also being abandoned for socioeconomic reasons especially on marginal sites, because they are incorporated in public or private protected areas, or are part of mandatory set-asides under Brazilian environmental legislation. However, little is known about phylogenetic structure, the processes of forest regeneration after abandonment and the conservation value of former cabruca sites. Here we compare the vegetation structure and composition of a former cabruca 30-40 years after abandonment with a managed cabruca and mature forest in the Atlantic forest region of Espirito Santo, Brazil. The forest in the abandoned cabruca had recovered a substantial part of its original structure. Abandoned cabruca have a higher density (mean ± CI95 %: 525.0 ± 40.3 stems per ha), basal area (34.0 ± 6.5 m per ha) and species richness (148 ± 11.5 species) than managed cabruca (96.0 ± 17.7; 24.15 ± 3.9 and 114.5 ± 16.0, respectively) but no significant differences to mature forest in density (581.0 ± 42.2), basal area (29.9.0 ± 3.3) and species richness (162.6 ± 15.5 species). Thinning (understory removal) changes phylogenetic structure from evenness in mature forest to clustering in managed cabruca, but after 30-40 years abandoned cabruca had a random phylogenetic structure, probably due to a balance between biotic and abiotic filters at this age. We conclude that abandoned cocoa agroforests present highly favorable conditions for the regeneration of Atlantic forest and could contribute to the formation of an interconnected network of forest habitat in this biodiversity hotspot. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water flow pathways and water balance are fundamental components for understanding the dynamics of C in the soil/water interface of small basins. The objective of this study was to describe the seasonal variations and estimate the annual balance of dissolved organic carbon ( DOC) by comparing two tropical microbasins (preserved forest- PF and cacao plantation- CP). Twenty-one weekly collections were conducted from September to December 2012 and from April to June 2013. The calculation of the partial balance considered precipitation (P) as inflow and the stream as outflow. The samples were filtered and analyzed using a TOC analyzer. Overall, the DOC was higher CP compared with FP. The behavior of both venues showed that rainy season caused an increase in concentrations in the overland flow ( OF) and in the stream, and a decrease in the precipitation (P) and in the throughfall (T). In the CP, the outflow and the soil were chiefly responsible for the high DOC concentrations in the stream, when compared to the PF, which is the result of constant OM decomposition. Soil composition contributes to the control of DOC consumption in each type of soil. The balances were negative in both microbasins, although losses were higher in the AFS (agroforestry systems) when compared to the PF, especially during rainy seasons (−8.98 and −3.05 kg ha−1 year−1, CP and FP, respectively). Thus, the high annual loss of DOC in the CP of the microbasins during the rainy season indicates changes in ecosystem metabolism due to the vegetation cover and to the interactions with the soil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With more than 633 species, Apanteles is the largest genus within the subfamily Microgastrinae (Hymenoptera, Braconidae). We describe three new species reared from pests of commercial fruits, Apanteles ahuacatl Shimbori, Giacomelli & Fernández-Triana sp. n., A. aratiku Shimbori sp. n., and A. mayochinchipe Shimbori sp. n. They parasitize caterpillars in the subfamily Stenomatinae (Depressariidae): the soursop moth Cerconota anonella (Sepp), in fruits of sweetsop (Annona squamosa L.) and atemoya (Annona squamosa x Annona cherimola Mill.) (Annonaceae), the avocado borer Stenoma catenifer Walsingham, in fruits of avocado (Persea americana Mill.) (Lauraceae), and the cacao shoot borer Stenoma decora Zeller, in fruits and shoots of cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) (Malvaceae). The new Apanteles species are included in an expanded version of the key provided by Fernández-Triana et al. (2014) for the Apanteles adelinamoralesae species group. In addition, the previous record of Apanteles stenomae Muesebeck in Brazil is revised and considered to actually represent the species A. yolandarojasae Fernández-Triana.

Chocolate is widely consumed worldwide and its market grows every year, with emerging demands for new high-quality products. However, this product is susceptible to contamination with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), representing a risk for humans. In this study, a methodology for the evaluation of benzo[a]pyrene, benzo[a]anthracene, benzo[b]fluoranthene and chrysene in chocolate by high performance liquid chromatography was validated. The occurrence, dietary exposure, and health risks of 4 PAHs in 38 commercial chocolate samples was investigated. The methodology demonstrated adequate accuracy and precision, with recovery (95.25 %-108.12 %) and relative standard deviation (0.14 %-5.83 %). Benzo[a]pyrene and the ∑4 PAHs concentrations varied between 1.09 and 10.42 µg/kg and 8.38-41.58 µg/kg, respectively. The results of risk assessment suggest low potential health risk for chocolate consumers, considering the margin of exposure (MOE) and the incremental life cancer risk (ILCR) values., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The use of fluoride (F) in the prevention of dental caries is established. However, a high amount of F intake during tooth development can cause dental fluorosis The aim of this study was to analyze variations in F concentrations in chocolate bars (CB), chocolate cookies (CC), infant cereals (IC), and chocolate milk drinks (CD) to determine the daily intake of F from different sources by children at the age of risk for developing dental fluorosis. Distinct brands of CB, CC, IC, and CD were analyzed. Fluoride was separated by hexamethyldisiloxane-facilitated diffusion. Analysis was made in triplicate with an F ion-specific electrode. F ingestion (mg/kg body weight) was evaluated with the suggested consumption (0.05-0.07 mg/kg/day) for children aged 24 months (12 kg). The concentrations for all the analyzed products ranged from 0.025 to 1.827 µg/g F. The mean (range) F concentrations were CB= 0.210 ± 0.205 µg/g (0.073-0.698, n = 8), CC = 0.366 ± 0.416 µg/g (0.320-1.827, n = 9), IC = 0.422 ± 0.395 µg/g (0.073-1.061, n = 5), and CD = 0.169 ± 0.170 µg/mL (0.025-0.443, n = 12). The products that had the highest concentration in the categories CB, CC, IC, and CD, respectively, were Nescau-Ball (0.698 µg/g), Passatempo (1.827 µg/g), Milnutri (1.061 µg/g), and Toddynho (0.443 µg/mL). The consumption of only one unit of Toddynho (CD) is equivalent to more than 11% of the maximum suggested daily intake for a 24-month-old child (0.07 mg/kg body weight). When one product from each category is consumed together only once a day, this consumption is equivalent to approximately 24% of the suggested daily intake of fluoride for a 24-month-old child. The presence of high levels of fluoride in certain products suggests that they play a significant role in overall fluoride intake. It is crucial to closely monitor the fluoride content of food and drinks that are consumed by children who are at risk for dental fluorosis, and for product labels to clearly display the fluoride concentrations.

Fine-grade cocoa beans are characterized by their great organoleptic quality. Brazilian cocoa producers increasingly privilege organoleptic quality over yield. Catongo and FL89, fine Brazilian cocoa genotypes from Bahia, are characterized by particular flavors (respectively, kerosene and whisky). The beans IMC67, PA121, and P7 from the state of Pará are genotypes that have high resistance to diseases. Solvent-assisted flavor evaporation (SAFE) aroma extraction was used here to identify and quantify the volatile compounds discriminating these genotypes. The results show that the kerosene aroma of Catongo is likely due to the presence, at high levels, of ethyl acetate and isobutyl acetate. On the other hand, ethyl benzoate, heptanoate, and octanoate, trans -2-nonenal, 1-octen-3-ol, and 3-methylbutanol could play a key role in the whisky notes of FL89. Heptan-2-ol, heptan-2-one, nonan-2-one, linalool (although still more concentrated in IMC67 from Pará state), benzaldehyde, and phenylacetaldehyde also discriminate these beans. Other compounds, although not discriminating, appear important in determining their aromatic quality. The PCA showed that cocoa from Pará state formed a cluster due to similar aromas, while FL89 was the most distinct among the genotypes. Beans from Brazil show great potential and diversity for the fine cocoa market.

• 44 yeast strains were tested against Moniliophthora roreri ; Frosty pod rot of cacao. • Six strains totally control M. roreri in vitro. • Seven yeasts were identified by molecular tools and found to belong to two genera. • Antifungal properties involved a combination of mechanisms. • Co-culture and VOCs reduced mycelial growth and spore numbers of M. roreri. Frosty pod rot is the most significant disease of cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) in Tropical America, enormously decreasing cacao production in these regions. The introduction of the disease in Cruzeiro do Sul, Brazil, increased cacao growers' concern. Preventive control measurements are already being studied and established. Therefore, this study aimed to isolate and identify yeasts from cacao tissues with the potential to control Moniliophthora roreri , the causal agent of frosty pod rot disease, and further evaluate some of their possible antagonistic mechanisms of action. The initial screening was conducted through a dual-culture with two M. roreri isolates from Ecuador and forty-four yeast isolates (38 from Ecuador, six from Brazil) from cacao tissues, cultivated separately. Yeast antagonistic activity was verified by co-cultivation, volatile organic compounds, cell-free suspensions, and thermostable compounds. Moreover, the biofilm-forming capacity of yeast isolates was examined. Seven yeast isolates were selected and showed an inhibitory effect of up to 71% in dual-cultures. None of them grew in body temperature. The isolates were identified by primer pairs of the D1/D2 region of the large subunit ribosomal ribonucleic acid (LSU rRNA) of Hannaella pagnoccae (INIAP-YYL 111, INIAP-YYL 112 and INIAP-YML 324), H. luteola (INIAP-YYL 521), Vishniacozyma carnescens (INIAP-YYL 612), Hannaella spp. (INIAP-YYL 123) and Rhodotorula paludigena (LEV 169), the last one already studied against Moniliophthora perniciosa in Brazil. Seven out of the forty-four yeast studied showed high inhibitory potential against M. roreri by different antagonistic mechanisms: co-cultivation in culture medium, volatile organic compounds, cell-free and thermostable compounds, and capacity for biofilm formation, some of these characteristics are promising for further use of yeasts as a biocontrol agent of M. roreri. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the economic history of the Amazon Region in Brazil during the 17th and 18th centuries, with a focus on the trade of cacao and clove in the states of Maranhão and Pará. It is the author's view that the development of an extractive economy in Maranhão did not imply a failure of the plantation economy favored by the Portuguese empire in the rest of Brazil, but the discovery of new products in the Amazonia. Subjects discussed include the working conditions of Indians in the region, the decline of Portuguese domain in India, and the cacao plantations in Spanish colonies in America.

Clonal genotypes resistant to fungal diseases are an important component of the cocoa production system in southeastern Bahia state (Brazil), so that technologies for faster production of stronger and healthier plantlets are highly desirable. In this study, the effects of inoculated bacterial endophytes isolated from healthy adult cacao plants on seedlings, and aspects related to inoculation methods, colonization patterns, and photosynthesis were investigated. Sequencing of 16S rRNA, hsp-60, and rpo-B genes placed the wild-type isolates within the species Enterobacter cloacae (isolates 341 and 344) and Bacillus subtilis (isolate 629). Spontaneous rifampicin-resistant (rif) variants for 344 were also produced and tested. Endophytic application was either by immersion of surface sterilized seeds in bacterial suspensions or direct inoculation into soil, 20 days after planting non-inoculated seeds into pots. Results from in vitro recovery of inoculated isolates showed that the wild-type endophytes and rif variants systemically colonized the entire cacao seedlings in 15-20 days, regardless of the inoculation method. Some endophytic treatments showed significant increases in seedlings' height, number of leaves, and dry matter. Inoculation methods affected the combined application of endophytes, which maintained the growth-promotion effects, but not in the same manner as in single applications. Interestingly, the 344-3.2 rif variant showed improved performance in relation to both the wild type and another related variant. Photosynthetic rates and stomatal conductance increased significantly for some endophytic treatments, being partially associated with effects on growth and affected by the inoculation method. The results suggest that E. cloacae and B. subtilis endophytes from healthy adult plants (not transmitted by seeds) were able to promote vegetative growth on cacao seedlings. The development of products for large-scale use in seedlings/plantlets production systems was discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Biotropica is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Large amounts of plant litter deposited in cacao agroforestry systems play a key role in nutrient cycling. Organic matter, nitrogen and phosphorus cycling and microbial biomass were investigated in cacao agroforestry systems on Latosols and Cambisols in Bahia, Brazil. The objective of this study was to characterize the microbial C and N, mineralizable N and organic P in two soil orders under three types of cacao agroforestry systems and an adjacent natural forest in Bahia, Brazil and also to evaluate the relationship between P fractions, microbial biomass and mineralized N with other soil attributes. Overall, the average stocks of organic C, total N and total organic P across all systems for 0-50 cm soil depth were 89,072, 8,838 and 790 kg ha, respectively. At this soil depth the average stock of labile organic P was 55.5 kg ha. For 0-10 cm soil depth, there were large amounts of microbial biomass C (mean of 286 kg ha), microbial biomass N (mean of 168 kg ha) and mineralizable N (mean of 79 kg ha). Organic P (total and labile) was negatively related to organic C, reflecting that the dynamics of organic P in these cacao agroforestry systems are not directly associated with organic C dynamics in soils, in contrast to the dynamics of N. Furthermore, the amounts of soil microbial biomass, mineralizable N, and organic P could be relevant for cacao nutrition, considering the low amount of N and P exported in cacao seeds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The significance of dietary factors as triggers for migraines is controversial, and the assessment of this topic is complex and inconclusive. In order to evaluate the published evidence on dietary triggers, a critical review of the literature was performed by conducting a search for food item descriptors linked to migraines in the PubMed and SciELO databases. Reviews and relevant references cited within the articles that resulted from the search were also included. Of the 45 studies reviewed, 16 were population studies that involved the association between migraines and eating habits or the prevalence of related dietary factors; 12 involved interventions or analyzed observational prospective cohorts; and 17 were retrospective studies. Approximately 30 dietary triggers were explored in total, although only seven of these were addressed experimentally. In the prospective studies, patients were instructed to keep a diary; two of these studies involved dietary interventions. Conclusions that are based on nonpharmacological prophylactic strategies with a scientific basis and that show an association between certain dietary factors and the triggering of migraines are limited by the lack of prospective studies with clear experimental designs. Nevertheless, the high frequency of possible specific dietary triggers validates efforts to elucidate the involvement of food-related factors in precipitating migraines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

groforestry systems (AFSs) have an important role in capturing above and below ground soil carbon and play a dominant role in mitigation of atmospheric CO. Attempts has been made here to identify soil organic matter fractions in the cacao-AFSs that have different susceptibility to microbial decomposition and further represent the basis of understanding soil C dynamics. The objective of this study was to characterize the organic matter density fractions and soil size fractions in soils of two types of cacao agroforestry systems and to compare with an adjacent natural forest in Bahia, Brazil. The land-use systems studied were: (1) a 30-year-old stand of natural forest with cacao (cacao cabruca), (2) a 30-year-old stand of cacao with Erythrina glauca as shade trees (cacao + erythrina), and (3) an adjacent natural forest without cacao. Soil samples were collected from 0-10 cm depth layer in reddish-yellow Oxisols. Soil samples was separated by wet sieving into five fraction-size classes (>2000 μm, 1000-2000 μm, 250-1000 μm, 53-250 μm, and <53 μm). C and N accumulated in to the light (free- and intra-aggregate density fractions) and heavy fractions of whole soil and soil size fraction were determined. Soil size fraction obtained in cacao AFS soils consisted mainly (65 %) of mega-aggregates (>2000 μm) mixed with macroaggregates (32-34%), and microaggregates (1-1.3%). Soil organic carbon (SOC) and total N content increased with increasing soil size fraction in all land-use systems. Organic C-to-total N ratio was higher in the macroaggregate than in the microaggregate. In general, in natural forest and cacao cabruca the contribution of C and N in the light and heavy fractions was similar. However, in cacao + erythrina the heavy fraction was the most common and contributed 67% of C and 63% of N. Finding of this study shows that the majority of C and N in all three systems studied are found in macroaggregates, particularly in the 250-1000 μm size aggregate class. The heavy fraction was the most common organic matter fraction in these soils. Thus, in mature cacao AFS on highly weathered soils the main mechanisms of C stabilization could be the physical protection within macroaggregate structures thereby minimizing the impact of conversion of forest to cacao AFS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

recent debate has contrasted two conservation strategies in agricultural landscapes; either 'land sparing' farm development combining intensive production practices with forest set-asides, or 'wildlife-friendly' farming with greater on-farm habitat value but lower yields. We argue that in established mosaic landscapes including old cacao production regions where natural forest has already been reduced to relatively small fragments, a combination of both strategies is needed to conserve biodiversity. After reviewing the evidence for the insufficiency of either strategy alone if applied to such landscapes, the paper focuses on the cacao production landscape of southern Bahia, Brazil, once the world's second largest cacao producer. Here, small remaining areas of Atlantic Forest are embedded in a matrix dominated by traditional cacao agroforests, resulting in a landscape mosaic that has proven favorable to the conservation of the region's high biodiversity. We show that current land use dynamics and public policies pose threats but also offer opportunities to conservation and describe a three-pronged landscape conservation strategy, consisting of (i) expansion of the protected areas system, (ii) promotion of productive yet biodiversity-friendly cacao farming practices, and (iii) assistance to land users to implement legally mandated on-farm reserves and voluntary private reserves. We discuss recent experiences concerning the implementation of this strategy, discuss likely future scenarios, and reflect on the applicability of the Bahian experience to biodiversity rich cacao production regions elsewhere in the tropics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Sloths are arboreal mammals strictly dependent upon forested habitats. The southern part of the state of Bahia in northeastern Brazil harbors important forest remnants and the highest genetic diversity known for the maned sloth (Bradypus torquatus), an endangered species endemic to the Atlantic forest. Large extents of cacao agroforests (cabrucas) connected to forest patches mitigate the effects of fragmentation in this region. We radio-tracked three maned sloths during 40 months in a cabruca at the vicinity of Una Biological Reserve, southern Bahia, and estimated their home range using two commonly employed estimators (minimum convex polygon (MCP) and kernel). Overall cabrucas comprised a significant portion of the home range of the three study animals (MCP: 7–100%) and at least a third of the areas of more intensive use (kernel: 27–99%). The tagged sloths used cabrucas more than expected according to the availability of this habitat in their home range and in the surrounding landscape. In addition to the tagged individuals, maned sloths were observed five times in the study area, twice in cabrucas. Eleven tree species present in cabrucas were used as food sources by maned sloths. Results indicate that biologically rich cacao agroforests immersed in a landscape still largely composed of native forests, as is the case here, can provide habitat for the maned sloth. This finding spells good news for the conservation of this species, as southern Bahia is one of the most important strongholds for the maned sloth. However, further actions are necessary to protect the species from local extinction, including active management of protected areas, forest fragments, cabrucas and pastures in an integrated, landscape-level manner. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]