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The ongoing choreography of extractive industries asks for a deeper appraisal about the processes and scales underpinning resource extraction. This paper unpacks how the assembly between natural gas production networks, extractivist states and local politics is anchored in resource peripheries in Peru and Bolivia through contingent schemes of value distribution. From a critical production network approach, the paper examines the transformation of resource peripheries through the transfer of natural gas rents to sub‐national governments and, more specifically, through investments in public infrastructure. Such investments embed natural gas production networks to local politics through three processes: providing an image of modernisation and progress; coopting local elites through corruption; and mobilising local labour. In conclusion, the articulation between production networks and extractivist states involves an entangled scheme of rent distribution that flows at very local levels and consolidates multi‐scalar arrangements for resource extraction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents Ag, Cu, and Pb isotopes for five silver and 10 copper artefacts found in the first intact pre‐Columbian tomb of the Wari culture female elite at Castillo de Huarmey, Peru. Ag and Cu isotope data indicate that the metals were extracted from primary, hypogene ore deposits. Most of the Pb isotope data for the Castillo de Huarmey artefacts correlate with the core Wari site of Conchopata, suggesting utilization of ores from similar deposits. The observed spread in Pb isotopes can be explained by the utilization of regional ores with highly variable Pb isotopes, such as the Julcani deposit. Alternatively, the linear nature of the Pb isotope results obtained for these samples may also be a result of the mixing of ores from different deposits or the re‐smelting of metals. Some of the Pb isotope results also indicate imports from other remote regions, providing evidence for long‐distance interactions on a vast regional scale, in the northern (North Coast of Peru) and southern (Southern Peru and Potosi region in Bolivia) spheres of influence of the Wari Empire and the Tiwanaku state. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The European–Latin American Consortium towards Eradication of Preventable Gallbladder Cancer, EULAT Eradicate GBC, is collecting high-quality data and samples in four Latin American countries with high gallbladder cancer incidence (Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, and Peru) to build a unique biorepository integrated into a tailored IT platform, to identify, validate, and functionally characterize new risk biomarkers, and to develop prediction models that integrate epidemiological and genetic–molecular risk factors. We decided to develop an application for electronic data collection to facilitate the retrieval of sociodemographic, clinical, lifestyle, dietary, and sample-related information from 15,000 Latin American study participants. The application EULAT eCollect will facilitate the work of study nurses, reduce time spent by participants, limit the use of paper and ink, minimize costs and errors associated with filling out written forms and subsequent digitisation, and support the monitoring of local recruitment rates and data quality. We describe in this article the design and implementation of the EULAT eCollect application, which started with the specification of functional and non-functional requirements, and ended with the implementation and validation of four separate application modules: Socio-Demographic Interview, Sample Information, Case Report Form, and Food-Frequency Questionnaire. We present both general and technical results, and our experience with the free and open-source software, Open Data Kit (ODK), which may be of interest for future related research projects, especially those on personalised cancer prevention carried out in low- and middle-income regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to analyze the effects of corruption on economic growth, human development and natural resources in Latin American and Nordic countries. Design/methodology/approach: Using the hierarchical prior of Gelman et al. (2003), a Bayesian panel Vector AutoRegression (VAR) model is estimated. In addition, two alternative approaches are considered, namely, a panel error correction VAR model and an asymmetric panel VAR model. Findings: The results reveal some relevant contrasts: (1) in Latin America there is support for the sand the wheels hypothesis in Bolivia and Chile, support for the grease the wheels hypothesis in Colombia and no significant impact of corruption on growth in Brazil and Peru, while in Nordic countries the response of growth to shocks in corruption is negative in all cases; (2) corruption negatively affects human development in all countries from both regions; (3) corruption tends to spur natural resources sector in Latin American countries, while it is detrimental for natural resources sector in Nordic countries. Research limitations/implications: The panel VAR approach uses recursive scheme identification. The authors have analyzed robustness using alternative ordering of the variables. The authors also have followed two alternatives suggested by the Referee: a panel error correction VAR model and a panel asymmetric VAR model. However, another more sophisticated identification scheme could be used. Also other variables could be introduced in the VAR model. Practical implications: Regardless of the issue of the "grease" vs the "sand the wheels" debate, corruption should be reduced because it is anyway harmful for human development. The differences in the results for Latin American and Nordic countries show that the effects of corruption have to be assessed considering the different institutional and economic conditions of the countries analyzed. Social implications: Governments should seek to reduce corruption because, despite corruption can have mixed effects on economic growth in some contexts, it is anyway harmful for human development. Besides, the finding that in some Latin American countries more activity in the extractive industries is generated by means of corruption confirm the association between corruption and extractivism found by Gudynas (2017) and can explain why there are issues of environmental damage and social conflict linked to natural resources in those countries. Originality/value: The present study contributes to the literature by presenting evidence on the effects of corruption on growth, human development and natural resources sector in Latin American and Nordic countries. It is the first study on economics of corruption which directly compares Latin American and Nordic countries. This is relevant because there are important differences between both regions since Latin American countries tend to suffer from widespread corruption, while the Nordic ones have a high level of transparency. It is also the first in using a Bayesian panel VAR approach in order to evaluate the effects of corruption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conflicts between countries in Latin America have been transpiring for a long time. For example, in addition to the conflict involving Peru, Bolivia, and Chile, there was also an armed conflict between Chile and Argentina in 1978-9, a conflict between Peru and Ecuador in 1981, and a conflict between Argentina and the United Kingdom over territorial rights in the South Atlantic region in 1982. Similarly, Central American countries have been in a state of endless conflict. Notably, conflicts within Latin America are different from power conflicts between superpowers. The crisis in the development of the region’s abundant resources has heightened tensions. Due to population growth and lack of land and jobs, migration within the region has increased, and new conflicts have emerged. The military forces, dictatorships, and rebellions of various countries in the region caused by political and economic instabilities are some of the conflict factors unique to Latin America. Interpreting conflicts between countries in Latin America that share a colonial history is an example of the multipolarity that is peculiar to this region. Korea and Latin America both have a history of colonial experiences, but the contexts are completely different. In Latin America, Spain is a mother country, not an adversary. In addition, in Latin America, the Western interpretations of “law” and “treaty” are dominant. In Chile, Peru, and Bolivia, border issues were settled through the International Constitutional Court. What are the implications of the territorial disputes between countries in Latin America? Our solutions may be different, but at least we can recognize that they perceive our problems in their own way. What is integration? Is true compromise impossible without concessions or sacrifices on either side? This paper attempts to examine the differences in the perceptions of history, conflict, and resolution based on historical and cultural backgrounds in Latin America through examples of territorial disputes in Chile, Peru, and Bolivia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growing value of forest resources has produced an increasing regulation of the use of forest resources in the national states of the Amazonian region. The new generation of forest norms have established a standardised system for the utilisation of forest resources based on two main aspects: the elaboration of forest management plans, and the granting of forest licences by the State's authorities. However, this system has also increased the barriers for applying TFRK in indigenous lands because the current forest norms do not always consider their knowledge, their customary law, and their values. In view of this problem, this paper identifies the gaps and opportunities of the ICH Convention for protecting the TFRK of Amazonian indigenous peoples, considering the national legal frameworks of Bolivia, Brazil, Ecuador and Peru. For doing this, firstly the connection between TFRK and intangible cultural heritage is shown. Secondly, the duties of the national States in relation to TFRK established by the ICH Convention are identified. Thirdly, it is discussed the form TFRK of Amazonian indigenous peoples is regulated in the national legal systems. Finally, it is analysed how the national norms that regulate TFRK of Amazonian indigenous peoples accommodate the ICH Convention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The current focus on monitoring health inequalities and the complexity around ethnicity requires careful consideration of how ethnic disparities are measured and presented. This paper aims to determine how inequalities in maternal healthcare by ethnicity change according to different criteria used to classify indigenous populations. Methods: Nationally representative demographic surveys from Bolivia, Guatemala, Mexico, and Peru (2008–2016) were used to explore coverage gaps across maternal health care by ethnicity using different criteria. Women were classified as indigenous through self-identification (SI), spoken indigenous language (SIL), or indigenous household (IH). We compared the gaps through measuring coverage ratios (CR) with adjusted Poisson regression models. Results: Proportions of indigenous women changed significantly according to the identification criterion (Bolivia:SI-63.1%/SIL-37.7%; Guatemala:SI-49.7%/SIL-28.2%; Peru:SI-34%/SIL-6.3% & Mexico:SI-29.7%/SIL-6.9%). Indigenous in all countries, regardless of their identification, had less coverage. Gaps in care between indigenous and non-indigenous populations changed, for all indicators and countries, depending on the criterion used (e.g., Bolivia CR for contraceptive-use SI = 0.70, SIL = 0.89; Guatemala CR for skilled-birth-attendant SI = 0.77, SIL = 0.59). The heterogeneity persists when the reference groups are modified and compare just to non-indigenous (e.g., Bolivia CR for contraceptive-use under SI = 0.64, SIL = 0.70; Guatemala CR for Skilled-birth-attendant under SI = 0.77, SIL = 0.57). Conclusions: The indigenous identification criteria could have an impact on the measurement of inequalities in the coverage of maternal health care. Given the complexity and diversity observed, it is not possible to provide a definitive direction on the best way to define indigenous populations to measure inequalities. In practice, the categorization will depend on the information available. Our results call for greater care in the analysis of ethnicity-based inequalities. A greater understanding on how the indigenous are classified when assessing inequalities by ethnicity can help stakeholders to deliver interventions responsive to the needs of these groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of our paper is to discuss and to think about the cultural heritage, tourism and photographic practice within the Andean cultural context, specifically, Bolivia and Peru. We will concentrate on analysing how certain images have been built and become hegemonic representations of those social groups that they want to portrait. We argue that tourism, cultural heritage and photography constitute a triad that contributes to the idealization of otherness, presenting their cultural heritage as must-see attractions and exotic worlds littered with a fetishized ethnicity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Andes represent one of the most important eco-regions of the world, fostering an enormous number of taxa associated with different altitudinal gradients. In the past two decades, there has been an increase in the description of different groups of insects, as in the case of the Lucanidae whose number of described species significantly rose in countries such as Peru and Bolivia. Aegognathus, a genus described originally from Peru, gained four new species during the last decade. Since then, the genus has not received proper taxonomic treatment, lacking updated information such as the actual distribution of some species, genitalic descriptions, female descriptions and identification keys. This paper aims to offer new taxonomic knowledge for the Andean species of Aegognathus, with a redescription of the type species, A. waterhousei Leuthner, the description of two new species and an identification key for the Andean taxa, as well as, the discussion of some possible implications in future conservation studies related to the distribution data of the studied taxa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the last complete revision of Psammisia (Ericaceae: Vaccinieae) in 1932 many new species, synonyms, and local treatments have been published and genetic information is slowly becoming available. This paper is based on field and herbarium observations made over a period of nearly 50 years and helps to clarify questions of typification and species relationships towards an updated revision. Emphasis is herein given to species occurring in Peru and Bolivia for which a key to the species occurring in that region is made available for the first time. Notes on the poorly understood yet historically important collections of Ruiz & Pavón, Humboldt & Bonpland, Mathews, the Schomburgk brothers, and Linden, Funck, & Schlim are provided as they refer to South American Ericaceae. Neotypes for Thibaudia formosa and Thibaudia nutans are also included. One new combination, Psammisia costeroides (Sleumer) Luteyn, is made. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Caviomorph rodents have been an important component of South American mammal faunas at least since the Oligocene. Those from the Deseadan South American Land Mammal Age (SALMA; late Oligocene) have been exhaustively studied because they are considered key to understanding the evolution of South American rodents. Deseadan faunas are widely distributed from northern Peru to central Patagonia, with those from Salla (Bolivia) and Cabeza Blanca (Argentinean Patagonia) being the most diverse. Recent studies of Deseadan rodents at some localities in high (Cabeza Blanca, Punta Nava, Scarritt Pocket) and low (Contamana) latitudes revealed greater taxonomic diversity. However, at middle latitudes, Salla has not received the same attention, despite being exceptional in terms of the abundance and high-quality preservation of specimens. The aim of this work is to report new caviomorph rodents from Salla, and to discuss their systematic and palaeobiogeographical implications in the context of the South American Deseadan caviomorph assemblages. We describe two new genera (†Lapazomys gen. nov. and †Cholamys gen. nov.) and five new species (†Migraveramus lavocati sp. nov., †Sallamys woodi sp. nov., †Lapazomys hartenbergeri sp. nov., †Protosteiromys pattersoni sp. nov. and †Cholamys tetralophodonta sp. nov.). These include the first erethizontids and the oldest Cavioidea sensu stricto for middle and low latitudes. The increase in the number of species corroborates the existence of an important rodent diversification already evidenced in the late early/early late Oligocene. In addition, the new rodents lessen the degree of endemism of the Salla rodent fauna proposed in previous papers. We interpret that the differences among Deseadan assemblages from low, middle and high latitudes are due essentially to climatic, historical and local environmental conditions, whereas diachronism seems less important in the modelling of faunas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Traditional knowledge (TK) has enabled communities to adapt to changes in life conditions over centuries. However, this local context is being dramatically affected by recent changes through globalization and modernization of societies. In this paper we seek to identify socio-economic factors that are related to the knowledge and use of two palm species in mestizo and indigenous communities in the Amazonian of Peru and Bolivia. Both species are known in the region under the main vernacular name of Asaí, and are source of two highly commercialized resources: palm-hearts and fruits. Euterpe precatoria Mart. is native to the region whereas E. oleracea Mart. is being introduced for the use of both resources. Methods: We compare TK about the two Euterpe species in both countries in relation to 14 socioeconomic factors in seven use categories. We performed a Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) to elucidate the influence of each socioeconomic factor on the overall palm knowledge or on individual use categories. Results: In the two countries, we found that mestizos, speaking only Spanish, and migrants in the same ecoregion, knew more uses in all use categories for E. precatoria than for E. oleracea, even in use categories such as Medicinal and veterinary and Construction, for which indigenous participants had more uses in case of other species. In Peru, the use of E. precatoria was higher among participants with greater wealth, which could be related to the commercial importance that both the fruits and the palm-hearts have had in the markets of the region. In contrast, in Bolivia, although some income generation from Euterpe sp. was observed, the use of E. precatoria was much more homogeneously distributed. The use of E. oleracea in Bolivia is recent, and although its most important uses are related to the consumption of fruits and palm-hearts (Human food), it is now being slowly used for Medicinal and Construction purposes, similar to E. precatoria. Conclusions: The use of each of the species forms part of divergent strategies in people's livelihoods. We show that integration into a market economy does not necessarily erode TK, but can rather stimulate knowledge acquisition and transmission of knowledge, and helps to understand the role and potential of these products to contribute to the livelihoods of households. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper reports new data on qocha ponds from the Rio Pucara–Azángaro interfluvial zone, northern Lake Titicaca Basin, Peru. Qocha are a little known form of Andean agriculture that developed around 800–500 B.C. and remain in use today. Prior estimates suggested that in the study area, there were more than 25,000 qocha. While most Andean sunken beds are excavated to reach groundwater, qocha are rain-fed ponds. How these rain-fed ponds functioned has been an open question, but one that is answered in part by research presented in this paper. We suggest that a thick impermeable stratum of clay that was possibly deposited by paleolake “Minchin” created a perched water table that makes rain-fed qocha reservoir agriculture possible. Field geology shows that within the study area, this stratum only exists under Terrace E. Based on this model, we hypothesized that persistently used qocha should only be found on Terrace E. To test this hypothesis we used remotely sensed data to inventory qocha and to determine their distribution by each terrace present. We identified 11,737 qocha. By area 93.77% and by count 94.33% of the qocha are located on Terrace E. These results strongly supported our hypothesis. This case study illustrates that the long term viability of this form of agriculture is made possible by a physical context that is beyond human control. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Papa Andina began as a regional research program focusing on the Andean potato sectors of Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru, but later shifted its focus to facilitating pro-poor innovation. To accomplish this shift, a number of approaches were developed to foster innovation, by facilitating mutual learning and collective action among individuals and groups with differing, often conflicting, interests. This paper explains why and how Papa Andina shifted its focus from conducting research to facilitating innovation, and describes two approaches that Papa Andina developed to facilitate mutual learning and innovation: the ‘participatory market chain approach’ and ‘horizontal evaluation’. Differing local circumstances and beliefs shaped the work of local teams, and rivalry among the teams stimulated creativity and innovation. Participatory evaluations helped individuals recognize and appreciate differences and build shared knowledge across the teams. After describing the case, the paper discusses the implications for knowledge management and innovation theory, and for the potential use of Papa Andina's approaches in other settings. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Ethnographic ''New Literacy Studies'' question the idea that literacy as such has any uniform effects, arguing instead that effects of literacy inhere in the social practices that impart it. What change, then, does literacy produce where it arrived from two opposed sets of practices? In Quechua- and Aymara-speaking villages on the high plains of Lake Titicaca, universal public schooling is a relatively recent innovation. It overlays an unofficial literacy that racially and linguistically stigmatized peasants acquired up to a century ago as cultural contraband and as a tool of conflict. Field research in 2000-2002 in Azángaro province focuses on Quechua households' memories of acquiring literacy and their ways of reading, making, using, and curating the documents resulting from it. A team of locally rooted researchers interviewed rural herder-farmers about past and present literacy practices. The papers in their household archives, almost all in Spanish, stand poles apart from indigenous Quechua speech. Moreover, the Spanish household papers' use is diglossic as compared to rural Spanish. Yet despite this double dissociation from speech, writing has become deeply involved in traditional practices of social reciprocity, ritual, and song. Writing has somewhat the status of a "parallel language," useful precisely because of its separateness from the hazards of unequal bilingualism. Schools take little notice of these informal traditions. Attention to them might work in favor of improved classroom achievement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is on territorial management in the frontier zone of Peru, Brazil and Bolivia, and its relation to the construction of the transoceanic highway. Its main objective is to discuss the processes of urban growth in the settlements of Iflapari (Madre de Dios, Peru), Assis Brasil (Acre, Brazil), and Bolpebra (Pando, Bolivia), and their connection to the wider process of international South American integration. Another objective is to bring a new comprehension to the planning and management process of the Amazon territory from a decentralized viewpoint, taking care of the environmental conservation and the protection of the Rio Acre basin. The discussion departs from the view that the construction of the road will stimulate an organized urban growth that may dramatically enforce the problems in relation to the social and environmental degradation, to finally propose a new strategy for territorial and urban management through the building of an international city that includes the three urban settlements already mentioned above. Finally, this paper shows that the best development possibilities for the region are in the integral management of the urban services, infrastructure and equipment. It is hoped that the perspective of an international city will ameliorate and even control the appearance of problems typical of frontier urban settlements, such as delinquency, prostitution, drugs traffic and consumption, smuggling, unemployment, lack of cultural identity, etc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Free trade agreements (FTAs) can affect food environments and non-communicable disease risks through altering the availability of highly-processed foods. Few studies have quantified such effects. Using a natural experiment this paper quantifies changes in Peru's soft-drink market before/after entry into the US-Peru FTA, compared with Bolivia, a county with no such agreement.Methods: Difference-in-difference models were used to test for between country differences in the rate of per capita foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows, soft-drink imports, the volumes of various soft-drinks sold, and the volumes of sugar from soft-drinks before/after FTA ratification (2006) and enforcement (2009).Results: In Peru average per capita FDI-inflows rose from US$103.11 in the pre-ratification period to US$269.79 post-ratification, with little change in Bolivia. This corresponded with a 122 % increase in Peruvian soft-drink production. There was a significant between-country difference in FDI-inflows pre-/post-ratification (DID:1.07, 95 % CI:0.19-1.96; p = 0.01). Despite little difference in total per capita soft-drink sales volumes there was a significant between-country difference in per capita sugar from soft-drinks pre-/post enforcement (DID:-0.99, 95 % CI: -1.91-0.06; p = 0.03) with stagnated growth in Peru and continued growth in Bolivia. This resulted from stagnated sugar sweetened carbonates growth and increased bottled water, juice and sports & energy drinks growth in Peru, with continued carbonates growth in Bolivia. There was a significant between-country difference in per capita carbonates (DID: -1.44, 95 % CI: -2.52-0.36, p = 0.01) and bottled water (DID:0.63; 95 % CI: -0.01-1.26; p = 0.04) sales volumes.Conclusions: The FTA may have resulted in increased FDI-inflows and soft-drink production and also contributed to the diversification of soft drinks produced and sold in Peru with some positive (stagnated carbonates and increased bottled water) and some negative (increased juice and sports & energy drinks) implications for nutrition. These changes were not evident in Bolivia. These results should be interpreted cautiously given the study design limitations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three new species of Omalodes are described from South America, including descriptions of male and female genitalia. Omalodes (O.) mazuri sp. n. is described from Peru and Bolivia; Omalodes (O.) punctulatus sp. n. from Brazil, and Omalodes (O.) rivus sp. n. from Bolivia and Brazil. This is the first paper with detailed information on the male and female genitalia of the genus, showing a great degree of variation to characterize different species. All three new species can be easily distinguished from other known Omalodes and from each other, on the basis of morphology and male genitalia pattern. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Political and academic debates about the distribution of resource rents to producing areas have addressed the issue of whether or not the transfers unleash conflicts. While this kind of debate is valid, the present paper argues that such a discussion is missing the point regarding the processes behind said types of conflicts, as well as how such conflicts are framed at the sub-national political geography of the state. By more deeply exploring these dimensions, the argument of this paper is that the production of uneven development within sub-national areas is crucial for understanding the above-mentioned conflicts and how the central state internalises those conflicts, producing new political geographies of rent distribution. As such, different territorial discourses of autonomy emerge along with uneven development, but their capacity to reach institutional autonomy is grounded on the spatial politics of each state. Empirically, this paper analyses how natural gas rents are distributed to sub-national producing areas in Peru and Bolivia, and how the production of uneven development through natural gas rents at sub-national level re-activated previous territorial demands for autonomy, which were internalised by central states in different ways. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In the last 50years, theoretical and practical approaches to promoting agricultural innovations have been evolving. Initial innovation diffusion theories led to a linear, top-down approach of technology transfer. However, changes occurred in the 1970s and 1980s, such as the economic structural adjustment which caused a dramatic decrease in governmental agricultural research and extension services in several developing countries. Simultaneously a number of new stakeholders (NGOs, private companies, farmer organizations, local governments, etc.) started to contribute to agricultural innovations more actively in the 1990s and 2000s. As the changes occurred, scholars began proposing new theories, such as the innovation systems approach, to explain how multiple stakeholders interact, exchange information, generate knowledge and develop innovations for solving problems. The paper describes the results of a rapid appraisal of potato innovation systems in Bolivia, Ethiopia, Peru and Uganda. The method was useful for identifying components and limitations in the system at pilot sites. Results indicate that the systems had similar types of components, namely national and local government organizations, NGOs, private companies, farmer organizations and media; another common feature was the limited interaction among organizational components, which reduced farmer access to information, technologies, organizations, markets and services. However, the role of organizational components was different across countries. Farmer organizations played a limited role at the pilot sites in these countries, except in Bolivia. The role of national governments was also limited in Bolivia and Peru, but played a major role in Ethiopia and Uganda at the moment of the study. Local governments were starting to play an important role in the four sites. NGOs played an active role in most countries, and the private companies in charge of input supply were more active in Bolivia and Peru. Media (radio) were present, but they were not contributing significantly to disseminating information for innovation. The International Potato Center (CIP) was present in all the systems, playing a role of innovation brokerage. Results indicate that different types of intervention would be needed for each country to strengthen the roles that components were already playing, but should look for improving interactions among components. In Ethiopia, strengthening innovation capacity of potato-related government organizations would be desirable to start the process, but in Bolivia, Peru and Uganda, enhancing interactions and coordination among government organizations, NGOs, private companies and farmer organizations would be needed, for example, to improve farmer access to quality planting material and markets. The role of farmer organizations and the private companies in charge of input supply need to be strengthened in the potato innovation systems in all places. The rapid appraisal of potato innovation systems has shown to be a method with potential to start understanding the complexity of the innovation systems and identify potential entry points for interventions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

According to the Peruvian agricultural ministry, the Pacific watersheds where the great cities and intense farming are located only benefit from 1% of the available freshwater in Peru. Hence a thorough knowledge of the hydrology of this region is of particular importance. In the paper, analysis of this region and of the two other main Peruvian drainages, the Titicaca and Amazonas are reported. Rainfall and runoff data collected by the Peruvian National Service of Meteorology and Hydrology (SENAMHI) and controlled under the Hydrogeodynamics of the Amazon Basin (HyBAm) project is the basis of this basin-scale study that covers the 1969–2004 period. Beyond the strong contrasting rainfall conditions that differentiate the dry coastal basins and the wet eastern lowlands, details are given about in situ runoff and per basin rainfall distribution in these regions, and about their different altitude–rainfall relationships. Rainfall and runoff variability is strong in the coastal basins at seasonal and inter-annual time scales, and related to extreme El Niño events in the Pacific Ocean. However, rainfall and runoff are more regular in the Andes and Amazonas at the inter-annual time scale. Warm sea-surface temperatures in the northern tropical Atlantic tend to produce drought in the southern Andes basins. Moreover, significant trends and change-points are observed in the runoff data of Amazonas basins where rainfall and runoff decrease, especially after the mid-1980s and during the low-stage season. Almost all the coastal basins show some change in minimum runoff during the last 35 years while no change is observed in rainfall. This means that human activity may have changed runoff in this region of Peru, but this hypothesis deserves more study. Editor Z.W. Kundzewicz; Associate editor Š. Blažková Citation Lavado C., W.S., Ronchail, J., Labat, D., Espinoza, J.C. and Guyot, J.L., 2012. Basin-scale analysis of rainfall and runoff in Peru (1969–2004): Pacific, Titicaca and Amazonas watersheds. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 57 (4), 625–642. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Background: It is commonly assumed that indigenous medical systems remain strong in developing countries because biomedicine is physically inaccessible or financially not affordable. This paper compares the health-seeking behavior of households from rural Andean communities at a Peruvian and a Bolivian study site. The main research question was whether the increased presence of biomedicine led to a displacement of Andean indigenous medical practices or to coexistence of the two healing traditions. Methodology: Open-ended interviews and free listing exercises were conducted between June 2006 and December 2008 with 18 households at each study site. Qualitative identification of households' therapeutic strategies and use of remedies was carried out by means of content analysis of interview transcriptions and inductive interference. Furthermore, a quantitative assessment of the incidence of culture-bound illnesses in local ethnobiological inventories was performed. Results: Our findings indicate that the health-seeking behavior of the Andean households in this study is independent of the degree of availability of biomedical facilities in terms of quality of services provided, physical accessibility, and financial affordability, except for specific practices such as childbirth. Preference for natural remedies over pharmaceuticals coexists with biomedical healthcare that is both accessible and affordable. Furthermore, our results show that greater access to biomedicine does not lead to less prevalence of Andean indigenous medical knowledge, as represented by the levels of knowledge about culture-bound illnesses. Conclusions: The take-home lesson for health policy-makers from this study is that the main obstacle to use of biomedicine in resource-poor rural areas might not be infrastructural or economic alone. Rather, it may lie in lack of sufficient recognition by biomedical practitioners of the value and importance of indigenous medical systems. We propose that the implementation of health care in indigenous communities be designed as a process of joint development of complementary knowledge and practices from indigenous and biomedical health traditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The aim of this paper is to document the evolution of glaciers in the tropical Andes (between 10°N and 16°S) for the last millennium, based on moraines dated by lichenometry and radiocarbon, lake sediment records and historical documents. Viewed collectively, several glacial advances occurred synchronously. The first advance is dated around AD 1200–1350. The maximum glacial extent (MGE), defined as the furthest down-valley extent recorded synchronously by the majority of glaciers, occurred around 1630–1680 in Bolivia and Peru (the outer tropics) and around AD 1730 in Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela (the inner tropics). Subsequently, during the 18th and 19th centuries, glaciers retreated continuously with only minor synchronous readvances. In the outer tropics, minor glacial advances occurred around 1730, 1760, 1800, 1850, and 1870. In the inner tropics, synchronous minor advances occurred around 1760, 1820 and 1880. Between the MGE and the early 20th century, glaciers lost about 30% of their total length. The retreat was slow between the 17th and 18th centuries but then became more marked. Use of the accumulation area ratio (AAR) method or historical observations in the different cordilleras revealed an increase in the equilibrium line altitude (ELA) of about 300 m from the MGE onward. Palaeoclimatic hypotheses, based on glaciological models run in different countries, suggest a cool and humid period in the 16–18th centuries followed by a colder and drier period in the 19th century. The reduction of glaciers observed from the middle of the 19th century is due to increasingly warmer conditions than before. Here, quantitative estimates are proposed to explain the evolution of the glaciers. In Venezuela, results indicate for the period 1250–1820 that mean air temperatures were 3.2±1.4 °C cooler and precipitation was about 22% higher than at present. In Ecuador, temperatures of between 0.8° and 1.1 °C lower than today, and between 25% and 35% higher accumulation than today, appear to have occurred in the 18th century, followed by a short drier but colder period at the beginning of the 19th century. In Bolivia, the MGE could be a consequence of a decrease in temperature of 1.1 to 1.2 °C, and a 20 to 30% increase in accumulation or an increase in cloudiness of about 1–2/10. We discuss not only external climatic forcing but also the coincidence between glacier expansion and a decrease in solar irradiance. Dating uncertainties, however, have made the role of volcanism in glacier fluctuations impossible to determine. Finally, we discuss the relationships between ENSO and glacier fluctuations in recent centuries, which do not match directly with current knowledge of modern teleconnections between tropical Pacific SSTs and variations in glacier mass balance. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The abandonment of indigenous and traditional ways of relating to the landscape and making use of the environment are historically tied, since the epoch of conquest, to the imposition of development models that respond to foreign demands. Social scientists have variously integrated the concept of development as an analytical tool, with differing foci and applications, despite a broader and persistent tendency to relate the idea chiefly to economic growth and eschew social progress. This paper critically addresses the theoretical implications of an ecological approach to the recovery of indigenous technologies in the Andean area, on the basis of experiences in bolivia, Ecuador and Peru. Its objective is to learn from past mistakes and recast the recovery of indigenous technologies as an effective strategy to articulate viable alternatives for local communities in the fields of agriculture, herding and agroforestry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A revision of the genus Tecoma in Bolivia based on the author's herbarium research and extensive field observations is presented. Species delimitation is re-evaluated, resulting in the recognition of only four species, one of which, T. beckii J. R. I. Wood, is described as new. Tecoma sambucifolia is treated as var. sambucifolia (Kunth) J. R. I. Wood of the widespread and variable T. stans (L.) Juss., as it can only be distinguished on the basis of minor morphological characters and is not as geographically restricted as has been supposed. Tecoma fulva (Cav.) D. Don is treated as a variable species extending from central Peru to Chile and northern Argentina with six subspecies: ssp. fulva, ssp. guarume (A. DC.) J. R. I. Wood, ssp. tanaeciiflora (Kränzlin) J. R. I. Wood, ssp. arequipensis (Sprague) J. R. I. Wood, ssp. garrocha (Hieron.) J. R. I. Wood, and ssp. altoandina J. R. I. Wood, the latter described as new. The differences between T. tenuiflora (A. DC.) Fabris and the Peruvian T. rosifolia Kunth are discussed. Hybrids are formally recognized in the genus for the first time, and the implications for the accepted corolla morphology and pollination syndromes are discussed. Maps illustrate the geographical distributions of the species. All taxa discussed in the paper are illustrated. © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2008, 156, 143–172. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper explores the relationship between political violence and ‘horizontal’ inequality in ethnically-divided countries in Latin America. The cases studied are Bolivia, Guatemala and Peru. Preliminary results are reported on the measurement of horizontal inequality, or that between groups, defined in cultural, ethnic and/or religious terms. The Latin American cases are shown to be often more unequal than the cases from Africa and Asia included in the wider study of which the work forms a part. The complex relationship between such inequality, ethnicity and political violence is explored historically. Ethnicity is today rarely a mobilising factor in violence in the Latin American cases, but the degree of inequality based on ethnicity is shown to be highly relevant to the degree of violence which results once conflict is instigated. History explains why. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

What is the effect of political violence on the production of coca in the Central Andes? Does U.S. military aid reduce the amount of drugs that originate from this region? What other factors help explain the production of coca? Are the effects of U.S. military aid the same across the Andean nations? This paper tests the effects of political violence and U.S. military aid in the drug producing nations of Colombia, Bolivia and Peru. Our results are consistent with existing literature that emphasizes the obstacles that governments face as they attempt to suppress markets for prohibited goods. Our comparative analysis sheds new light on the limitations of the current U.S. policy, particularly in Colombia, where political violence has strengthened the global drug trade. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A regional approach to public architecture offers a useful medium through which to study changes in the scale of integrative institutions. Changes in political structure are often associated with changes in the scale and complexity of public ritual space. in Bolivia's Lake Titicaca Basin, Middle Formative period (800–250 B.C.) villagers along the Taraco Peninsula built earthen platforms that visually dominated their settlements. Until recently, research on the peninsula had focused almost exclusively on the site of Chiripa, with the result that little was known of the regional context in which this site and its neighbors emerged. Now, after excavations at the contemporaneous site of Alto Pukara, the sequence of public architecture at Middle Formative communities may be viewed within a regional context. This paper evaluates the trajectory of institutional complexity along the Taraco Peninsula through a formal comparison of public ritual architecture at Alto Pukara and Chiripa. Six criteria for measuring architectural variation-centrality, permanence, accessibility, visibility, scale, and ubiquity—facilitate this comparison. Only through a regional approach can we understand the integrative role of public space in these early village societies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates whether children later reported as having been unwanted or mistimed at conception will, when compared with children reported as wanted, show adverse effects when the following criteria are applied: receipt of antenatal care before the sixth month of gestation, supervised delivery, full vaccination of the child, and child growth (stunting). The study uses data from five recent Demographic and Health Survey enquiries in Bolivia, Egypt, Kenya, Peru, and the Philippines. In Peru, children unwanted at conception were found to have significantly worse outcomes than other children, but in the other countries, a systematic effect was found only for receipt of antenatal care. Weak measurement of the complex concept of wantedness may have contributed to these results. Birth order of the child, with which wantedness is inextricably linked, has more powerful and pervasive effects, with first-born and second-born children being much less likely to show adverse effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates variations in the strength and structure of familial association in neonatal mortality risks in four populations; Bolivia, Kenya, Peru, and Tanzania. Exploratory analyses of the structure of the familial association are presented for each population. Random effects logistic models are then used to estimate the strength of familial association in neonatal mortality risks using a standard set of control variables. The results suggest that the strength of familial association in neonatal mortality risks is quite similar in these four populations which would be consistent with a biological explanation for the association. However, some differences were found, particularly in the form of the association in Peru, which may suggest at least a small role of other factors. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Background: Adolescents in the Latin American and Caribbean region continue to experience poor reproductive health outcomes, including high rates of first birth before the age of 20 years. Aggregate national level data fails to identify groups where progress is particularly poor. This paper explores how trends in adolescent births have changed over time in five countries (Bolivia, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Haiti, and Peru) using data disaggregated by adolescent age group, wealth and urban / rural residence. Methods: The study draws on Demographic and Health Survey data from five countries where three surveys are available since 1990, with the most recent after 2006. It examines trends in adolescent births by wealth status and urban/rural residence. Results: There has been little progress in reducing adolescent first births over the last two decades in these countries. Adolescent first births continue to be more common among the poorest and rural residents, and births among the youngest age-group (< 16 years) are particularly concentrated among these populations. Conclusion: Adolescent first births continue to be a major issue in these five countries, including amongst the youngest group (< 16 years), although the contexts in which it is occurring are changing over time. Efforts are needed to expand sexual education and services for adolescents and young people, as well as introduce and enforce legislation to provide effective protection from abuse or exploitation. Greater disaggregation of adolescent fertility data is needed if we are to measure progress towards the attainment of the Sustainable Development Goals to “leave no-one behind”. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores the impact of COVID-19 on artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) supply chains in Peru between spring 2020 and early 2021. This analysis delves into the effects of the pandemic on the ASGM sector and the illicit flow of gold, including the effect of the mandated lockdown on the Peruvian economy, the price of gold and its impact on artisanal and small-scale mining communities, the socio-economic consequences of the quarantine on Peru's ASGM population, and the impact of lockdown on the gold supply chain. This study suggests the artisanal and small-scale mining formalization process in Peru was greatly impacted by the coronavirus pandemic, which brought complications such as increased criminal activity and violence along the gold supply chain. Similar trends can be seen in ASGM populations around the globe, and case studies from Zimbabwe, Colombia, Bolivia, and Chile explore how different governments have handled the effect of COVID-19 on the ASGM sector. This article highlights recommendations for governments and other key stakeholders to consider for supporting and strengthening ASGM communities, the gold supply chain, and the pursuit of formalization in Peru and worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]