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This study addresses how violence is mobilized through wage theft in feminized workplaces thriving within the global value chain. Guided by Judith Butler's concept of derealization, this longitudinal case study on the Bangladesh garment industry advances the current debate on violence in organization studies. First, it re-conceptualizes the notion of an 'ideal worker'. Empirical evidence reveals that, unlike in Western societies, young and childless women in the Global South and their vulnerabilities woven into poverty, inequality, climate change, patriarchy, social stratification, and limited employment opportunities make them 'ideal workers'. This status remains valid as long as they remain vulnerable and demonstrate no agency in resisting the discourse on dehumanization, dispossession, and displacement. Second, this study illuminates the practice of wage theft, which has emerged as a dominant form of violence in feminized workplaces. Organizations also deploy secrecy to continue theft, thereby inflicting further physical and psychological violence. This study highlights the fact that socioeconomic vulnerabilities and unresisted violence oppress a docile workforce to become 'ideal workers'. It is a neoliberal myth that helps powerful actors shore up their power and privileges through derealization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The recent growth and development of aquaculture industry in Bangladesh demand a thorough investigation of price volatility spillover pattern among capture fisheries and aquaculture products. Utilizing nationally representative monthly retail price data of the last seventeen years, we identify the evidence of volatility spillover effects among capture fisheries and aquaculture markets. We find three phases of fish price movements: (1) fish prices, in general, were increasing prior to 2013 with higher fluctuations and structural breaks; (2) prices were comparatively stable from 2013 to 2019 for almost all markets with sporadic shocks; (3) increasing trajectory of fish prices are observed during the COVID-19 period. We also find that all the aquaculture products have significant direct or indirect long-run volatility spillover effect to capture fish market. We identify only one aquaculture product with a significant positive own price asymmetric effect indicating negative news increases the price volatility behavior in its own market. Our findings may play a vital role in implementing suitable food security policies and reducing overexploitation of natural resources. Policies promoting fish price stability should prioritize tilapia and pangasius markets, and targeted investments in the aquaculture industry should be made to promote greater stability in the fisheries and aquaculture market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Learning the extent of price volatility is critical to ensure the producer and consumer's economic welfare. Hence, we have envisioned assessing the price transmission relationship over time among the farmgate, wholesale, and retail markets for the four major aquaculture products, namely Rui, Catla, Tilapia and Pangas in Bangladesh. The Granger causality test examined the causal relationships among the farmgate, wholesale and retail fish prices. The Houck/Ward and error correction approach was also applied to study their price transmission pattern. Results indicate that the retail price leads the wholesale and farmgate price. In most cases, the coefficient of variation decreases as the fish handover from the farmgate to retail levels. Out of 15 pairs of farmgate, wholesale, and retail price-series analyzed, 14 pairs are co-integrated (p < 0.01). Current results also suggest that the price transmission pattern is symmetric in the short run but could be a mixture of symmetric and asymmetric in the long run. This asymmetric price behavior indicates that changes in retail prices do not get reflected fully at both farmgate and wholesale prices, and the transmitted prices may vary according to the retail prices based on their rising or falling pattern. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aiding developing nations like Bangladesh in their pursuit of food security requires careful analysis of marketing costs and margins as well as farmer profitability. Therefore, this study delves into the profitability and marketing intricacies of four prominent fish species in Bangladesh's aquaculture sector namely rohu (Labeo rohita), catla (Catla catla), Nile tilapia (Oreochromis nilotica), and pangas (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus). Through extensive face-to-face survey involving 200 fish farmers and 212 market actors in aquaculture-rich districts, the research uncovers valuable insights. The findings unveil varying profitability, with catla fish emerging as the most lucrative, boasting a substantial benefitcost ratio (BCR) of 2.77, while Nile tilapia trails with a BCR of 1.08. The highest expense was incurred for feed, followed by fingerlings. The study highlights the existence of multiple routes for transferring fish from producers to consumers, notably direct sales to middlemen and the active involvement of intermediaries like wholesalers, and facilitators. Farmers sell 41% of their fish directly to middlemen. With facilitator's commission standing out as the most important cost component, wholesalers bear an excessive portion of the marketing expenses. Efficiency in fish marketing is meticulously assessed, with catla fish emerging as the most efficiently supplied species. The study underlines the considerable potential for bolstering fish productivity and enhancing the value chain-a promising avenue that promises financial benefits to both fish farmers and market actors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study was conducted to explore the fish value chain and the determinants that influenced the fish farmer's decision, preferably in the value addition chain of Rui, Catla, Tilapia, and Pangas fish. Hence, primary data were collected from 200 fish farmers and 212 market actors from three districts of Bangladesh. The per quintal value addition by the retailers in Mymensingh and Jessore areas was the highest for Rui and the lowest for Pangas. In Dhaka, the retailer's highest per quintal value was reported for Catla. The Poisson regression analysis revealed that farmers' education, fish farming experience, and access to extension services could positively, while the farmer's age could negatively influence their value addition decisions. Developing effective extension services is vital to make an integrated and sophisticated fish market system in Bangladesh. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The global demand for high-value shrimp has driven the gradual growth of shrimp farming in Bangladesh and its export to the international market over the last four decades. This shift from rice production to shrimp farming was criticized in literature for exporting nutrients from a country already suffering from malnutrition and a 'hidden hunger'. Using questionnaires and data from across a variety of markets in the southwest region of Bangladesh (Khulna, Satkhira and Bagerhat districts), the heart of the country's shrimp production, this study showed that the shrimp export industry in Bangladesh supports a thriving fish production sector destined to national markets. The co-produced fish and shrimp volume and species variety indicate its polyculture. The study found that 17% of the southwest total fish volume in wet weight was exported to the global market and 83% remained within Bangladesh. In domestic share, about 30% is consumed in southwest Bangladesh and 53% is destined to other parts of the country. It also revealed that from 33 to 41% shrimp and 43 to 46% prawn in volume was consumed within the country and the rest was destined for the international market from the southwest coastal area of Bangladesh. The study indicates that this small-scale polyculture system provides good support for local food supply, exports earnings of Bangladesh and combats with malnutrition in this region affected by climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Analyzing governance structure is considered important when designing development interventions in the value chain. The objective of this paper was to explore the governance structure (GS) in cauliflower and tomato value chain, specifically the types of GS followed by the farmers and factors behind these choices. The two-stage random sampling procedure was used to collect data from 100 farmers whereas 60 traders were surveyed purposively for this study. Multinomial logit model was used to analyze the factors affecting farmer's choice of GS. Trader's perceptions regarding internal and external governance as well as good governance indicators were assessed by utilizing non-parametric test. Cauliflower and tomato farmers were involved in practicing spot market, relational, farmer's association and outgrowing scheme-based GS. The results showed that the probability to choose relational, outgrowing scheme and farmer's association-based GS were significantly affected by education of farmers, distance to the nearest market, access to extension services, access to price information, trust commitment, transaction specific investment, preferences of diversification, farm size, transactional uncertainty, and access to producer's cooperative. Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney-U test established trader's dissimilation towards governance indicators. The study suggests that smallholder farmers need to be well organized and coordination mechanisms among all stakeholders should be increased. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Avian influenza virus subtype H9N2 is endemic in Bangladesh's poultry population. The subtype affects poultry production and poses a potential zoonotic risk. Insufficient understanding of how the poultry trading network shapes the dissemination of avian influenza viruses has hindered the design of targeted interventions to reduce their spread. Here, we use phylodynamic analyses of haemagglutinin sequences to investigate the spatial spread and dispersal patterns of H9N2 viruses in Bangladesh's poultry population, focusing on its two largest cities (Dhaka and Chattogram) and their poultry production and distribution networks. Our analyses suggest that H9N2 subtype avian influenza virus lineage movement occurs relatively less frequently between Bangladesh's two largest cities than within each city. H9N2 viruses detected in single markets are often more closely related to viruses from other markets in the same city than to each other, consistent with close epidemiological connectivity between markets. Our analyses also suggest that H9N2 viruses may spread more frequently between chickens of the three most commonly sold types (sunali—a cross-bred of Fayoumi hen and Rhode Island Red cock, deshi—local indigenous, and exotic broiler) in Dhaka than in Chattogram. Overall, this study improves our understanding of how Bangladesh's poultry trading system impacts avian influenza virus spread and should contribute to the design of tailored surveillance that accommodates local heterogeneity in virus dispersal patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The prevalence of avian influenza viruses is commonly found to increase dramatically as birds are transported from farms to live bird markets. Viral transmission dynamics along marketing chains are, however, poorly understood. To address this gap, we implemented a controlled field experiment altering chicken supply to a live bird market in Chattogram, Bangladesh. Broilers and backyard chickens traded along altered (intervention) and conventional (control) marketing chains were tested for avian influenza viruses at different time points. Upon arrival at the live bird market, the odds of detecting avian influenza viruses did not differ between control and intervention groups. However, 12 h later, intervention group odds were lower, particularly for broilers, indicating that viral shedding in live bird markets resulted partly from infections occurring during transport and trade. Curtailing avian influenza virus prevalence in live bird markets requires mitigating risk in marketing chain nodes preceding chickens' delivery at live bird markets., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest None., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The present study analyzes the market access of the biggest fish market at Chattogram coastal region of Bangladesh affected by COVID-19. The food chain was reduced locally, regionally, and globally as supply chains were disturbed and international seafood exports were halted for a certain period. For data collection several qualitative data collection tools, such as individual interviews as well as secondary document analysis were employed. To realize the overarching aim of this research the whole market system was analyzed including the supplier, wholesaler, retailer, as well as the consumer of the domestic market in the Chattogram district. The result shows that the pandemic slowed the supply and demand in the domestic fish market, and as a consequence the price of fish was distinctly reduced in the whole market system. The result highlights that the most affected stages of the supply chains are the supply quantity, the interval of the supply, and the quantity of fish sales. Furthermore, the principally affected stages of the demand chains are consumer demand and alternation in the preference of the consumer. To overcome such situation, this study recommends governmental financial support to trades to ensure the smooth flow of the supply and demand and create an alternative market system for the consumer. The pandemic and the measures to address the pandemic have created significant new challenges for market access and controlling pricing in domestic markets. Regularly engage of the policymakers are thus the prerequisite to overcome the compensation of trades and ensure food security in this sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was undertaken to estimate the financial profitability and assess the value chain of pineapple in Madhupur upazila of Tangail, Bangladesh. A total of 100 stakeholders were interviewed randomly using a structured questionnaire to collect primary data. A combination of descriptive, mathematical, and statistical techniques was used to analyze the data. The study depicts that 76.7% farmers used Giant Kew variety for pineapple production. Profitability analysis shows that pineapple production was profitable in the study area. The study reveals that the total value added by the stakeholders to a piece of pineapple was Tk. 38. Among the market actors, wholesalers added the highest value of Tk. 13 per piece (34.2% of total value addition). The study also identified six significant factors, namely, income, farming experience, credit access, market price, labor availability, and lower production of paddy having positive influence on farmers' decision to adopt pineapple production. The study found higher price of inputs, lack of preservation and processing facilities, and lack of operating capital as the major problems for production, value addition, and marketing of pineapple, respectively. The study recommended to ensure reasonable price of the inputs along with better infrastructure, transportation, and processing facilities to overcome the problems. Furthermore, monitoring facilities of government and non‐government organizations should be increased to improve quality of pineapple. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Addressing the systemic constraints is very important for the economics of mango production in Bangladesh, which is the 7th largest mango producing country in the world. Based on the functions any value chain includes three function actors and different dimensions such as inclusiveness (i.e., extreme poor inclusion) and gross margin, the study qualitatively and quantitatively assessed mango fruit value chain. Methodologies were applied with an assemblage of bottom-up and topdown approaches. Structured questionnaires were used to survey mango producing households, input sellers and mango buyers. The percentile value of composite revealed that mango fruit production and selling the annual specified gross margin (SGM) were Tk.1,600 (66%) for extreme poor (hereafter referred to as EP) producers, while Tk.1,09,880 (64%) for rich producers and Tk. 2,43,000 (76%) for retailers/middleman. The profit margin of medium and rich producers as well as middlemen was better, but less for poor and EP households due to the systemic market constraints. This assessment aims to prepare improving strategies and/or interventions for mango production that elucidates what actions could be taken for the mango fruit value chain in different segments such as improved technologies, harvesting, grading, packaging, transportation, marketing, etc. so that the poor and EP households will get more profit margin from mango production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soft‐shell mud crab (Scylla olivacea) farming was introduced to the coastal floodplains of Cox's Bazar, a south‐east region of Bangladesh, in 2011. These farming practices then spread among many farmers within the region, and gradually increased in the southwest coastal floodplains of the Satkhira district. While farming in the Satkhira region has experienced relatively smooth growth, the mud crab farms in Cox's Bazar have gone through big ups and downs. Indeed, the number of these farms in the south‐east was found to have gradually decreased by 80% in 4 years (2014–2017). This study looks at historical perspectives and thoroughly reviews the state of soft‐shell mud crab farming practices. In addition to key stakeholder interviews, data were collected from all the existing and collapsed farms of this type in the Cox's Bazar region. It is revealed that social coherence was the main factor that enabled the 'boom' periods due to farmers sharing methods and technologies among their communities. In contrast, poor linkage to global value chains, lack of product diversification, shortage of seed supply due to an inadequate supply of trash fish for feeding, prolonged banning of sea fishing, the poor bargaining capacity of the stakeholders and small‐scale farmers lacking direct access to export markets were the key factors for the 'bust' periods, even when global demand was increasing daily. A balance between local and global markets, value‐added diversified product development and adoption of advanced technologies in the crab farming industry are recommended for the revival and sustenance of this emerging sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Because of the increasing differential between farm and retail prices, the study proposes to investigate the extent of market power in the rice value chain of Bangladesh using advanced econometric techniques. Design/methodology/approach: Using a Stochastic Frontier Estimation approach on cross-sectional data, the study examines the price spread along the rice value chain to determine whether millers and wholesalers exercise market power. Findings: Empirical results reveal that, on average, rice millers and wholesalers charge 33 and 29% above the marginal cost, respectively. This study confirms the non-competitive behavior of the rice market with wholesalers and millers wielding substantial market power Research limitations/implications: A limitation of the study is that it does not include the retailers who also play a major role in the Bangladesh rice value chain. This is left for future study. Originality/value: This study combines primary and secondary data collected on the Bangladesh rice sector to examine the market power of two major players along the value chain, millers and wholesalers, using an advanced econometrics approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The shrimp industry of Bangladesh is well experienced and almost the sole contributor to fish export. The rapid growth of pangasius aquaculture has emerged as a new opportunity for export but the export path is uneven for a new species. This article identifies areas where the pangasius industry can use knowledge obtained from the development of the shrimp industry to develop its own export opportunities. The shrimp industry has developed infrastructure and a specific legal framework in the form of e-traceability and licensing to comply with food safety and certification requirements of its global buyers. The pangasius industry can also learn from the mistakes of the shrimp industry, particularly those concerning planned ponds and dike systems. The experience of the shrimp industry is a new school of learning for the pangasius industry to get access to the global market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the prevailing dairy value chain based on primary data collected from 70 small-scale milk producers of Mymensingh district of Bangladesh. The total cost and net return per month per cow were Tk. 4024.30 and Tk. 3165.70, respectively. The net value additions of Tk. 2091.42, Tk. 495.00, Tk. 655.00, Tk. 503.25, Tk. 309.70 were estimated for milk producers, collectors, Faria, Bepari and retailers respectively. Different actors spent highest marketing cost ranged from Tk.49 to Tk.80 for transportation compared to other marketing functions. Actors mostly dependent on the on-going market prices for setting price of milk in the value chain. A value chain map was developed showing the relationships and linkages among value chain actors of small-scale dairy. The study identified some critical factors for successful dairy marketing. The factors were understanding consumer behaviour, technology and transportation, improved business relationships, reduced transaction costs, and improved information flow, and organized market structure. Milk producer's share in consumers' price was highest for channel- I followed by channel- V. Expensive, inadequate, low quality feed, lack of grazing land, green grass, inadequate capital, knowledge about cost of production, weak extension services, high fees and unavailability of veterinary doctors, were some of the major problems of milk producers. Supply of adequate feed at subsidized price, ensuring easy access to institutional credit at a lower interest rate, adequate medicine and veterinary services, allocation of khas land for producing fodder/grass, were suggested to solve the problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study assessed pangas and tilapia value chain, and analyze the internal and external governance of the market actors at different levels. A total of 200 samples (100 for each of pangas and tilapia fish) were included in the study from some selected areas of Bangladesh. A combination of descriptive statistics, mathematical and statistical analysis was used to analyze the data. The study reveals that among all the actors, processors added the highest value which was followed by farmers. The internal and external governance issues followed by different actors could be ranked as average which reveals the improvement issue through intervention from respective authorities. Multinomial logit model explained that there were several factors having significant influence on internal and external governance of pangas and tilapia value chain. The study recommended that good governance should be ensured from the production point to consumer along all the actors of value chain. Government should take step about monitoring the feed quality and improvement of pangas and tilapia value chain governance. Moreover, respective authority should play the assigned role to train up the chain actors and provide extension services in order to explore the export potential of pangas and tilapia fish in Bangladesh. • Among all the actors, processors added the highest value. • Average internal and external governance issues followed by different actors. • Several factors significantly influence pangas and tilapia value chain governance. • Good governance should be ensured from the production point to consumer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rapid growth of aquaculture in Bangladesh over the past three decades has been facilitated by increasing supplementary feed use and increasing numbers of feed suppliers, but little is known about the organization and behavior of the feed supply segment of aquaculture value chain. We conducted a comprehensive survey with 79 feed suppliers of two types: 'dealers' linked to feed companies (n = 34) and independent retailers (n = 45), in the seven main aquaculture producing districts of southern Bangladesh in 2021 to address this knowledge gap. We found the following. (1) Over the past 10 years, the number of traders increased 70% and the volume of feed traded almost doubled. (2) Feed supply is shifting from traditional agricultural byproducts to formulated feeds (47% of total feed), and floating feeds as a subset of those (54% of formulated feed), contributing to increasing farm productivity. (3) The formulated fish feed market in Bangladesh is diverse, but quite concentrated. Feed suppliers sold formulated feed produced by 35 companies, with eight companies accounting for 74% of sales. (4) Feed handling practices are efficient. Traders sell feeds quickly (average turnover time 10 days) and storage practices are adequate to maintain quality. (5) No traders reported experiencing any waste or loss of feed during their most recent completed transaction, and only 5% of traders reported losing a small portion of feed (1.7%) during transport. (6) The average profit margin earned by feed suppliers is a modest 6.2%. (7) Feed trading creates substantial employment: 43,937 full time equivalent (FTE) jobs in the seven surveyed districts. In sum, the feed supply segment of the aquaculture value chain in southern Bangladesh is dynamic, well-developed, and relatively competitive and efficient. This finding is contrary to the conventional wisdom, which often portrays the sector as inefficient and beset by problems. • Feed trading businesses in Bangladesh have enabled the intensification of aquaculture. • Trader feed handling practices are efficient with rapid stock turnover minimizing spoilage and feed loss and waste. • Feed trading creates substantial employment: approximately one FTE job in feed supply for every 10 FTEs on-farm. • Feed trader profit margins are modest, and traders appear to reduce credit constraints for farms by offering credit in-kind. • The feed supply segment of the aquaculture value chain in Bangladesh is dynamic, well-developed, competitive, efficient. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rapid development of the aquaculture industry has a significant impact on fish price movements along the value chain; especially in Bangladesh where most of the animal source protein consumption is driven by this sector. In this article, we investigate price transmission and market integration in the value chain of the four most consumed aquaculture fish species: silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), pangasius (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus), and rohu (Labeo rohita). Monthly fish price data were collected from the Bangladesh Department of Agricultural Marketing website from January 2007 to December 2019, a period characterized by rapid emergence of aquaculture and declining capture fisheries. Our analysis shows that for almost all the fish species, the direction of market information is moving from the retail market to the wholesale market. This implies that retail markets are more organized and wholesalers follow the price set by the retailers. In the short run, only rohu market shows bidirectional information flow between wholesale and retail markets indicating no single market has significant control over the price. The study has highlighted the role of aquaculture to increase fish production and potential contribution to fish price stabilization and food security. • Bangladesh is experiencing significant growth in aquaculture production although there is a dramatic decline in capture fisheries. • We find the direction of market information is moving from retail price to wholesale price in long run. • Retail markets are more organized and hold more market power than wholesalers. • Fish markets in Bangladesh do not operate in a uniform way rather show different characteristics based on locations in short-run. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Onion (Allium cepa L.) is one of the most important and widely used vegetable and spice crops in Bangladesh as well as in many countries of the world. During winter, onion is widely cultivated all over Bangladesh. A large number of people are involved in the production and marketing of the onion. The imbalance in the supply-demand in onion is increasing every year due to low production coupled with an increased population. Realizing the increasing importance of onion as spice, the present study was undertaken with some objectives such as to identify the value chain & marketing channels. Many research and studies were conducted on Onion production and marketing is abroad. But in Bangladesh there are very few studies on onion marketing and value chain. Farmers in Pabna have achieved remarkable success in onion cultivation, officials said. Preliminary survey was conducted in Sujanagar upazila of Pabna district. The total sample size was 30, which include producer, faria, beparis, arathdar, wholesaler, retailer, consumer were selected purposively from different markets of Sujanagar Upazila. In the process of onion marketing the intermediaries are involved in a chain was: Farias, Beparis, Arathdars, Wholesalers and retailers. In the study area Faria purchased 100 percent from producer, beparis 66.67 percent from producer and 33.33 percent from faria. Arathdar buy 12.5 percent from producer, 25 percent from Faria and 62.5 percent from Bepari. Wholesaler purchased 11.11 percent from faria, 44.44 percent from bepari and 44.45 percent from the arathdar. Retailer purchased 54.29 percent from producer 31.42 percent from faria and 14.29 percent from wholesaler. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mountain value chains are influenced by the mountain specificities including inaccessibility, diversity, marginality and fragility, and therefore need to be looked at in the light of these pre-conditions in order to favour the poor and enable them to enter into dynamic global markets. Mainstreaming the poor and the disadvantaged in the mountain value chains is a bigger challenge since they face greater mountain specificities along with other pre-conditions, with the biggest challenge being societal barriers and their limited negotiating skills that prevent them from penetrating the market. This paper focuses on ways of mainstreaming the poor and marginalised people in the honey value chain by strengthening linkages for inclusive growth. This action research was conducted in collaboration with our partner organisations in Bangladesh, Nepal and Pakistan, during the period between 2010 and 2012 with the objective of bringing greater benefits to the poor producers and honey collectors through the adoption of a pro-poor mountain-specific value chain approach. This research has tried to prove that in rural areas where access to income is limited, small scale commercial beekeeping can contribute significantly to livelihood security by strengthening the collaboration among the beekeepers and chain actors at various levels. Our efforts have concentrated on organising and strengthening beekeepers’ groups or self-help groups (SHGs)/associations or cooperatives and developing community institutions, while building their capacity to take livelihood decisions and providing them with a range of support services and linkages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – This paper aims to critically engage with the premise of development at the “bottom of the pyramid” through consideration of the current and potential future status of the workers who dismantle end-of-life ships in the breaking yards of “less developed countries”, here with specific reference to the dynamic situation in Bangladesh. Design/methodology/approach – The study applies “critical scenario method” (CSM) to explore different possible and plausible futures for the ship-breaking industry globally and locally. Findings – The paper argues that the status of the workers in the ship-breaking industry of Bangladesh can be conceptualised as firmly set at the “bottom of the pyramid”, and that, for most if not all, this situation cannot be changed within any industry future without wider, radical change to socioeconomic and political structures both in the country and globally. Originality/value – This paper offers a contribution to the discourse on consumption at the “bottom of the pyramid” as a development process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poultry production is a valuable source of nutritious food and income and is considered a crucial part of global development. This is especially important for countries such as Bangladesh where levels of hunger and childhood stunting remain high. However, in many low- and middle-income countries poultry production remains dominated by small to medium scale enterprises operating with poor farm biosecurity associated with poultry and zoonotic disease risks. We aimed to characterize the structure of poultry production in Bangladesh in order to identify the underlying structural factors and resulting practices which create risk environments for emergence, persistence and transmission of infectious diseases. Using the concept of a production and distribution network (PDN), we conducted a review of the literature, 27 in-depth interviews with key-informants and stakeholders, and 20 structured interviews with poultry distributors to map the ways which poultry are raised, distributed and marketed in Bangladesh. Findings indicate that the PDN can be considered in the context of four major sub-networks, based on the types of chickens; broadly indigenous, cross-bred, exotic broiler, and layer chickens. These sub-networks do not exist in isolation; their transactional nodes - actors and sites - are dynamic and numerous interactions occur within and between the PDN. Our findings suggest that the growth in small and medium scale poultry enterprises is conducted within 'fragile' enterprises by inexperienced and poorly supported producers, many of whom lack capacity for the level of system upgrading needed to mitigate disease risk. Efforts could be taken to address the structural underlying factors identified, such as the poor bargaining power of producers and lack of access to independent credit and indemnity schemes, as a way to reduce the fragility of the PDN and increase its resilience to disease threats. This knowledge on the PDN structure and function provide the essential basis to better study the generation, mitigation and consequences of disease risks associated to livestock, including the analysis of potential hotspots for disease emergence and transmission. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]