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In 2021, Bangladesh reached 97% nation‐wide electricity access. With over 4.1 million solar home systems (SHS) installed by 60 Partner Organisations (POs) providing renewable electricity to more than 22 million rural people, SHS and microfinance have been instrumental in bridging and achieving the country's universal access goal. However, a huge gap remains in achieving the country's 100% use of renewable energy by 2050, with only 3.1% of current electricity generation accounted for by renewables. While at centralised level, governmental institutions are struggling to move past the legacy mandate of grid extension to an energy transformation paradigm at decentralised levels, rural Bangladeshi villages are already leading this transformation. Today, 100 solar peer‐to‐peer microgrids, built following the swarm electrification pathway, allow end‐users to run appliances, charge vehicles, and to trade renewable electricity for income. In this paper, we describe the organisational model of the partnership between Grameen Shakti, Bangladesh's largest PO, and climate‐tech start‐up ME SOLshare, the swarm electrification implementer. We assess, using data from the peer‐to‐peer grids, their socio‐economic and environmental impact, and their contribution to the SDG 2030 Agenda. Finally, we give an outlook towards the potential of achieving sustainable energy development through a scale‐up of the swarm electrification approach, including under a scenario of 100% national grid electrification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In a country of over 166 million people, the unstable coal-, gas-, and oil-driven on-grid electricity network in Bangladesh hardly connects every remote area and island. In rural areas where grid extension is too expensive, solar home systems (SHS) provide an appealing electrification option. Despite SHS becoming popular in Bangladesh, the understanding of the uses, impacts and challenges of SHS in rural communities, particularly in the remote coastal regions is largely unknown. In this study, using a semi-structured questionnaire survey at the household (HH) level and multiple participatory rural appraisal tools (Focus Group Discussion (FGD) and Key Informant Interview (KII)), we evaluated the (i) usage of solar energy for various activities, (ii) impact of SHS on lives and livelihoods of HHs, and (iii) challenges in SHS usage in two sub-districts (Dacope and Monpura) in Bangladesh. Regardless of the studied sub-districts, lighting, charging, and studying were the top home uses of solar energy. Since most HHs have school-aged children, a large percentage of HHs (83 % in Dacope and 71 % in Monpura) used solar energy for their children's education. Almost half of the responding HHs used solar energy for recreation, followed by 24 % (41 %) for shop keeping, and 15 % (24 %) for tailoring in Dacope (Monpura) sub-districts. Social security was the most widely mentioned influence on their life. Nearly three-quarters respondents in Dacope and 58 % in Monpura reported that their children's school attendance increased. Since both sub-districts are the worst-affected by natural disasters, nearly three-quarters of households acknowledged that solar power had a huge impact on emergency preparedness. The success stories of the influence of SHS in strengthening the livelihoods of SHS users have inspired neighborhoods, particularly young entrepreneurs, to start new businesses like tailoring, poultry farming, and charging stations for electric vehicles. Despite the far-reaching effects of SHS on their livelihoods, the respondents have encountered numerous obstacles (e.g., foggy weather). Although SHS users are ignorant of the correct procedures for disposing of defective equipment, one-fifth of households expressed worry about the impact of disposing equipment on the environment. The findings in the qualitative analysis (FGD and KII) extracted by summative content analysis also supported the findings of HH survey. That is, the frequency of identified words: 'lighting', 'charging', 'disaster response, preparedness, foggy weather' were higher compared to other recognized words. This study concludes that despite some challenges in its usages, SHS greatly influenced the lives and livelihoods of these geographically challenged locations by introducing income generating activities, boosting social security, women empowerment and responding to natural calamities. The evidence of the success stories of SHS users in introducing new business and strengthening their livelihood opportunities provides positive impacts among the communities in these disaster vulnerable regions. This study findings are of practical importance to (i) the decision makers for the movement of green energy and policy implementation and (ii) the SHS companies and NGOs to providing subsidized SHSs to the marginalized communities. • Solar home system (SHS) uses and impacts on coastal communities were assessed. • Lighting, charging and income generating activities were the top usage of SHS. • Social security, school attendance and women empowerment were the most stated impacts of SHS. • Foggy weather and panel cleanliness were the biggest obstacles to getting optimum output from SHS. • Hazardous waste generation from SHS is considered a potential threat to the environment and human health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Assessing human presence in close proximity to river network is crucial for frequently flood-affected populous countries, like Bangladesh, to reliably estimate flood-exposure risk. Using multitemporal satellite nighttime light (NTL) as a proxy for human presence, we examined the spatial distribution and change in NTL luminosity (+11,225.69 km² areas) across Bangladesh during 2000–2018 at national and river network scales. Results showed a rising trend and emerging hotspots of nightlights and increased near-river population (+1.5 million) under flood-exposure risk. These patterns were coincident with the dwindling of forests (-91.89%), grasslands (-6.02%) and barren lands (-27.92%) and increased built-up (11.06%) areas. Positive correlations were found between annual NTL luminosity and Land Scan population (r = 0.48) and annual population (%) access to electricity (r = 0.82), revealing the effect of rural electrification. Our analytical approach and results provide a basis for timely monitoring of floodplain occupancy and flood-exposure risk at scale in the rapidly developing regions globally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study has been conducted to identify vulnerabilities and effects of climate change on women in 12 unions in Shyamnagar upazila in the Satkhira district in the Southwestern Coastal Region of Bangladesh (SWCRB). Climate vulnerability and gender inequality may increase due to climate change. Women may, thus, face specific conditions of vulnerability in society and daily livelihood. This paper focuses on investigating factors that influence women's vulnerability from climate change, their adaptations, and the importance of women empowerment to reduce their inequality in SWCRB. This study also emphasizes gender inequality caused by climate change, and looks at accommodations for women to reduce hostile influences of climate change. From the 9 unions in SWCRB, a total of 320 household respondents were randomly selected to complete a questionnaire. The results of the statistical analysis showed that most of the survey's perimeter has significant. Interviews, case studies, focus group discussions, workshops, and key informant interviews were also conducted from 12 unions, and it was found that climate change impacts men and women differently, with women being more vulnerable than men. Through case study this paper investigated the main factors influencing the vulnerability of women. In terms of empowerment women may also be well positioned to lead adaptation efforts alongside men, as this analysis represent that gender inequalities are leading by social norms. Women being more vulnerable both in short-term i.e., major natural disasters, cyclones, flood, and long-term i.e., sea level rise, salinity intrusion in water and soil, land erosion, droughts, climatic events, as they enhance gender inequalities. Further, gender inequality is seen in illiteracy, food shortages and poor health conditions, traditional norms, religious taboos, and patriarchy. Moreover, gender-based economic opportunities, women's mobility, and income are changing, while household authority relations and gender-based socio-economic, cultural, and institutional constraints remain. This study examines the increased vulnerability of women in SWCRB to climate change, which can be mitigated through women empowerment; female involvement with environmentally friendly stoves, rural electrification and renewable energy development, microfinancing, and nakshikantha. (Nakshikantha is a special type of sewing art that is made by creating designs with different types of colored threads on plain stitches). Lastly, women may also lead adaptation efforts alongside men, make decisions, and promote their participation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The absence of electricity is among the gravest problems preventing a nation's development. Hybrid renewable energy systems (HRES) play a vital role to reducing this issue. The major goal of this study is to use the non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm (NSGA)-II and hybrid optimization of multiple energy resources (HOMER) Pro Software to reduce the net present cost (NPC), cost of energy (COE), and CO2 emissions of proposed power system. Five cases have been considered to understand the optimal HRES system for Kutubdia Island in Bangladesh and analyzed the technical viability and economic potential of this system. To demonstrate the efficacy of the suggested strategy, the best case outcomes from the two approaches are compared. The study's optimal solution is also subjected to a sensitivity analysis to take into account fluctuations in the annual wind speed, solar radiation, and fuel costs. According to the data, the optimized PV/Wind/Battery/DG system (USD 711,943) has a lower NPC than the other cases. The NPC obtained by the NSGA-II technique is 2.69% lower than that of the HOMER-based system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Bangladesh is a South Asian developing country trying to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG)-3 and the objective of the Rural Electrification Board (REB) regarding child mortality. Infectious diseases are leading causes of child mortality, and lack of exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) among infants aged 0–6 months increases child morbidity and mortality from various infectious diseases in developing countries. However, as per existing literature, no study has been conducted yet to determine the lack of EBF practice effect on child mortality in Bangladesh. With this backdrop, the authors intend to measure the likelihood of infectious diseases due to the lack of EBF of infants aged 0–6 months in Bangladesh. Materials and methods: This study used Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey (BDHS) data over 1996–97 to 2017–18. The mothers of infants aged 0–6 months who were willingly participated in the BDHSs were considered to include in our analysis. Initially, there were 9,133 cases in the combined dataset. After filtering, there were 5,724 cases in the final dataset. We have considered diarrhea (D), acute respiratory infection (ARI) separately as well as the presence of either D or ARI or both and named as CoDARI as outcome variables. This study used both graphical and statistical techniques (Chi-square test, Wald test, and logistic regression) to analyze the data. The odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) were used to quantify the likelihood of infectious diseases due to lack of EBF practice and its elasticity, respectively. Results: The EBF practice got a conspicuous increasing trend, but the prevalence of infectious diseases was declined from 0 to 3 months of age of infants, whereas an inverse scenario is observed between 4–6 months. The significance of that inverse relationship was confirmed by p-value corresponding to the chi-square test and the Wald test of the adjusted regression coefficients after adjusting the associated factor's effect on infectious diseases. The adjusted ORs also concluded that the lack of EBF practice up to six months of age could enhance the risk of D, ARI, and CoDARI by 2.11 [95% CI: 1.56–2.85], 1.43 [95% CI: 1.28–1.60], and 1.48 [95% CI: 1.32–1.66] times higher, respectively. Conclusion: Findings of this study emphasize the importance of EBF up to six months of age of infants against diarrhea and ARI specific morbidity and mortality. Our results also agreed to the recommendation of the World Health Organization (WHO), United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF), American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), American Academy of Family Physicians (AAFP), and National Nutrition Programme of Ethiopia (NNPE) that the EBF practice for the first six months of age could be a best, cost-effective, long-lasting natural preventive way to reduce the child morbidity and mortality due to infectious diseases in developing countries. Therefore, findings would help policymakers ensuring the achievement target of REB and SDG-3 associated with the health sector in Bangladesh. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Access to electricity accelerates the pace of social and economic development of a country in addition to boosting the overall living standard of people. Ensuring universal access to electricity remains a challenge in Bangladesh because the households outside electricity coverage are often poor and/or reside in remote or rural areas. This paper empirically examines the causal impact of rural electrification on the household welfare of life-line or lowest-tier electricity consumers of rural Bangladesh who are mainly lower-income households group. We use the Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies (BIDS) 2018 household survey data, collected from villages with and without access to electricity. The sample consists of 511 electrified and 325 non-electrified households as well as covers all eight divisions of the country to account for geographical variations. We employ a recently developed quasi-experiment econometric method, namely the Covariate Balancing Propensity Score (CBPS) method, which simultaneously optimizes covariate balance and estimates propensity scores as well as account for non-random selection of treatment households (electrified households). The analysis indicates the robust impact of rural electrification on economic and educational outcomes for the lowest-tier electricity consumers of rural Bangladesh. Electrification contributes to 81% (about 2.10 liter/month) reduction of kerosene consumption per household per month. Considering this reduction, we find that the connection of electricity under life-line program contributes to about 0.24 million tons' reduction in CO2 emission at the national level in each year. The average treatment effect of electrification on weekly working hours of household earning members is found to be positive and significant--weekly working hours increase by about 2.21 hours. With regard to educational outcomes, time spent on evening studies by boys and girls increases by about 21 minutes and 18 minutes per day, respectively, due to electrification. Overall, the paper provides valuable insights regarding the benefits of rural electrification in a setting with low electricity consumption and justifies the case for continued subsidized electrification program for the lowest-tier electricity consumers in Bangladesh. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We estimate the impact of market concentration on solar home system installations. • We study 503 rural off-grid energy markets in Bangladesh over 15 years. • An increasing market concentration reduces new installations and total capacity. • Market concentration strongly affects rural households buying small systems. • The supply structure needs to be addressed to achieve universal electricity access. Markets have an important role in the emergence and diffusion of renewable energy technologies. This paper investigates the impact of market concentration on solar home system installations in rural off-grid energy markets of Bangladesh. We use an extensive dataset that includes 4.11 million solar home systems installed in 503 markets over 15 years (2003–2017). We show that an increase in the degree of market concentration reduces both the number and the total capacity of installed solar home systems after controlling for relevant demand- and supply-side factors. The marginal effect is non-linear and is particularly strong at a higher degree of market concentration. Additionally, we find heterogeneous effects of market concentration depending on the size of the installed solar home system and customer group. Our study implies that policymakers and development authorities should take the supply structure of rural off-grid energy markets into account when designing universal electrification policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using household survey data from off-grid regions of rural Bangladesh, this study attempts to assess the impacts of mobile phone use on household welfare and women's empowerment. Using two propensity score-based weighted regressions (IPW and AIPW), this study finds that mobile phone use increases household income (3–10 percent) from different sources, such as small businesses and remittances; improves women's empowerment; and facilitates consumption smoothing during periods of shocks. Thus, favorable policies on investment in mobile telephone technologies, tariffs on talk time and internet usage, and mobile innovations, such as mobile financial services could reduce communication bottlenecks and digital divide in rural lagging regions that will help achieve a balanced regional development. Simultaneously, policies to avoid adverse impact of mobile phone usage should also be in place. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Strong evidences are appearing that show the intensity and frequency of natural disasters are increasing in Bangladesh under the changing climate conditions. These disasters and climate change induced challenges create various forms of challenges in energy sector in terms of availability of energy options, access to energy, increased burden related to costs; and women, especially in the rural contexts, suffer from these challenges the most. In these contexts, this study was conducted with the community located in the Daskhin Kharibari village of Dimla Upazila of Nilphamari district of northern Bangladesh. The field works took place between June 2018 to January 2020 using participatory action research tools to know the gender perspectives of energy, disaster management and climate actions in the rural Bangladesh contexts. The findings of the research show the vulnerability of women as results of the challenges indicated above and their short- and long-term coping strategies to the conditions. It is also suggested how additional support from different sectors may help local adaptation efforts more useful. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Grid extension from the distribution network is being used to meet the demand for rural electricity all over the world. Due to the extra cost of extending electric lines to rural villages, it is not feasible as the installing and commissioning costs are directly related to several constraints such as distance from the main grid, the land location, utilities to be used, and the size of the approximate load. Consequently, it becomes a challenge to apply technoeconomic strategies for rural electrification. Therefore, considering the above issues of rural electrification through grid power, the renewable energy system can be an attractive solution. This research analyzes different types of loads considering domestic, industrial, and agricultural requirements for a remote village in a developing country like Bangladesh. In this paper, four types of demand scenarios are developed considering the income level of inhabitants of the village. The investigation identifies the optimal scope for renewable energy-based electrification and provides a suitable technoeconomic analysis with the help of HOMER software. The obtained results show that a combined architecture containing solar panel, diesel generator, and battery power is a viable solution and economically beneficial. The optimal configuration suggested for the primary scenario consists of 25 kW diesel generators to fulfill the basic demand. The hybrid PV-diesel-battery system becomes the optimal solution while the demand restriction is removed for secondary, tertiary, and full-option scenarios. Commercial and productive loads are considered in the load profile for these three scenarios of supply. For the primary scenario of supply, the electricity cost remains high as $0.449/kWh. On the other hand, the lowest electricity cost ($0.30/kWh) is obtained for the secondary scenario. Although the suggested optimal PV-diesel-battery might not reduce the cost of electricity (COE) and NPC significantly, it is capable to reduce dependency on diesel utilization. Hence, the emission of carbon is reduced due to less utilization of diesel that helps to minimize the greenhouse effect on the environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy insufficiency is obstructing the socio-economic and industrial improvement of Bangladesh. Renewable energy contributes about 560 Megawatt (MW) of the total electricity production of 20,430 MW, which can be a sustainable solution to the demand-supply crisis. This paper, summarises the current energy situation of Bangladesh and examines the available renewable energy resources and their future prospect. It has been revealed that Bangladesh is heavily (62%) relying on natural gas although government has already taken steps to generate electricity from renewable energy sources. Current policies and legislations related to generation of renewable energy in Bangladesh have been discussed explicitly. Finally, some suggestions have been made to tackle the ongoing energy crisis in the country, in addition to the renewable energy.Abbreviations: GDP: Gross domestic product; RNPP: Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant; Tcf: Trillion cubic feet; IDCOL: Infrastructure development company limited; BPDB: Bangladesh Power Development Board: GS: Grameen Shakti; BWDB: Bangladesh Water Development Board: USD: United States Dollar; IPP: Independent power producer: BCAS: Bangladesh center for advanced studies; NWPGCL: North West Power Generation Company Limited: BCSIR: Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial Research; EGCB: Electricity Generation Company of Bangladesh: WRA: Wind Resource Assessment; REB: Rural Electrification Board: BRAC: Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee; kW: Kilowatt: PJ: Petajoules; MW: Megawatt: IFRAD: Institute for fuel research and Development; GWh: Gigawatt hours: ICS: Improved Cooking Stoves; MWh: Megawatt hours: DoE: Department of Environment; TWh: Trillion-watt hour: DLS: Department of Livestock Services; RPCL: Rural Power Company Limited: mmcfd: million cubic feet per day; APSCL: Ashugang Power Station Company Limited: BSCIC: Bangladesh Small & Cottage Industries Corporation (BSCIC); GOB: Government of Bangladesh: BADC: Bangladesh Agricultural Development Corporation; SREDA: Sustainable and Renewable Energy Development Authority: DIDA: Danish International Development Agency; LGED: Local Government Engineering Directorate: BAU: Bangladesh Agricultural University; NGO: Non-Governmental Organization: HBRI: Housing & Building Research Institute; IRENA: International Renewable energy Agency: : BARD: Bangladesh Academy for Rural Development; ETP: Electronic Traffic Pricing: BCCD: Bangladesh Commission for Christian Development; PV: Photovoltaic: BRRI: Bangladesh Rice Research Institute; SHS: Solar Home Systems: NDBMP: National Domestic Biogas and Manure Program; TOE: Tonne of oil equivalent: K/km: Kelvin/kilometer; LEAP: Long range Energy Alternative Planning [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Smart gridding of conventional power grids is key to ensuring the optimal use of electricity. Incorporation of contemporary smart gridding technologies (SGTs) within the power sector of Bangladesh can lead to expansion of the national grid infrastructure, improvement in energy‐use efficiencies, betterment of the reliability of power supply, and reduction in the monetary values of system losses. In addition, the accommodation of renewable energy within smart grids can raise the share of renewable electricity as a percentage of total electricity output of Bangladesh. This, in turn, is anticipated to provide off‐grid electrification opportunities and play a critically important role in mitigating the urban‐rural divide in access to electricity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Worldwide, the demand for energy has increased significantly in last two decades, leading to an increased use of non-renewable energy resources. The global agenda aims to reduce the carbon intensity of energy in long-term climate change mitigation strategies, and to achieve Sustainable Development Goal 7 (SDG-7) on affordable and clean energy. Use of renewable energy (RE) can contribute to reducing global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions while providing incremental financial resources to stimulate clean development mechanisms. Hydropower continues to be the leading RE option and has the additional benefits of water storage for agriculture and other uses. Drawing on the position of four Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) countries – Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Pakistan – this paper investigates the current status of hydropower generation and related policies, and attempts to identify the key challenges to and opportunities for hydropower development in the region. Collectively, four HKH countries have commercially feasible hydropower potential of nearly 190 GW. However, only one-third of this potential has actually been tapped so far. Nepal and Pakistan have tapped 2% and 12%, respectively, of their hydropower potential. The current hydropower supply has not been able to fulfill the electricity demand in the region, where 26–37% of the rural population is living without access to electricity, and future demand for electricity is likely to increase sharply. There are several economic, social, technical, environmental, ecological and political challenges to hydropower production in the HKH countries. Despite these challenges, hydropower remains an important option for achieving renewable energy goals in the region. To achieve these goals, we suggest capitalizing on emerging opportunities such as large hydropower development using a 'smart approach', micro-hydropower promotion, energy trade, and regional cooperation for collective energy development programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An attempt has been made to utilise solar energy more efficiently by developing the single pass hybrid photovoltaic thermal system at the climatic condition of Bangladesh. As the electric energy conversion efficiency of the photovoltaic module falls with the surrounding temperature and air or water used as a suitable solution to make it cool. In this study, air was used as the cooling medium for the solar panel and circular copper tube was placed on the glazed collector for water heating to ensure maximum exploitation of solar energy. Moreover, the photovoltaic panel power was used to circulate the air and make the system self-powered. Maximum collector efficiency was 24.64% for water and 11.20% for air is observed at a mass flow rate 0.00158 and 0.00221 kg/s for water and air respectively at a solar radiation of 1050 W/m2. In addition, the combined efficiency of the hybrid system was about 39.68%. By adding glycerin with water at a ratio of 50:1 (% of weight) the combined efficiency reached up to 45.76%. The computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation and economic analysis of the designed system strongly support the feasibility of the solar hybrid photovoltaic thermal system as the future sustainable energy source. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the effects of low-voltage supply on single-phase irrigation systems by considering the case of Bangladesh Rural Electrification Board (BREB). Single-phase induction motors (SPIMs) are extensively employed in irrigation systems throughout the world. In Bangladesh, insufficient power generation and large transmission line impedances render the voltage at the consumer end much lower than expected from BREB. This reduces system efficiency and may even cause motor burnouts. Numerous control schemes for variable frequency drives have been published over the years. However, theoretical work regarding the performance analysis of single-phase VFDs under low-voltage conditions considering the mathematical model of the SPIM is rather scarce. In this paper, a modelled irrigation system containing a single-phase VFD is assessed in terms of key parameters such as operating voltage, frequency and efficiency. A system-specific relationship between the modulation index and output voltage of the single-phase VFD is achieved, and the effect of the volts-per-hertz control is illustrated. Finally, a comparison of the VFD-connected system with a conventional system without VFD is made using MATLAB Simulink. The results show that volts-per-hertz control significantly contributes in maintaining a decent efficiency throughout a wide voltage range, which is not the case for the conventional system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the potential application of hybridized energy system (i.e., PV/Wind/Diesel) with battery storage in the northern region of Bangladesh. A techno-economic feasibility of different system configurations is evaluated and an optimized system is selected using HOMER (Hybrid Optimization Model for Electric Renewable) software. The hybrid system is optimized to meet a remote stand-alone village community’s load demand of 242.56 kWh/day with a 51.52 kW peak load demand. The result of this study indicates that the optimized hybrid system consists of 73 kW PV arrays, a 57 kW Diesel generator, a 387 kWh nominal capacity battery bank, and 28 kW inverters have the minimum Cost of Energy (COE) of 0.37$/kWh and the Net Present Cost (NPC) of $357,284. The outcome also indicates that the optimized system reduces CO 2 emission by around 62% in comparison with the kerosene used in a current situation and 67% with the grid connected system. Furthermore, the Life Cycle Emissions-LCE (kg CO 2 -eq/yr) production is considerably lower in PV/Batt/ICE system than the other system configurations. However, this system has a lower Duty Factor (DF) compared to Wind/Batt/Diesel and Batt/Diesel based system. Although this system is not comparable with the grid tariff, the proposed method is economically feasible than solar micro utility system, Wind/Batt/Diesel system, and Diesel generator only system. Additionally, the article discusses the social and economic benefits of implementing the hybridized system along with their barriers and challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary Access to electricity has the potential to improve the nutritional status of children by a variety of pathways such as increased wealth, reduced fertility through the change in time use, spread of information through technology such as TV, and improved health care services. Yet, the relationship between electrification and children’s nutritional status is rarely explored in the literature. We attempt to fill this lacuna by offering microeconometric evidence from rural Bangladesh, where a rapid expansion of electrification and significant improvement in children’s nutritional status were observed in the past two decades. We find that access to electricity has a positive impact on the nutritional status of children under five as measured by height-for-age Z -score (HAZ) by around 0.1–0.2 points using five rounds of Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey from 2000 to 2014. Our results also appear to indicate that the quality of electricity may influence the size of this positive impact. While our analysis of causal pathways is limited by the data availability, it suggests that the positive impact of electrification partially comes from increased wealth. For some years, the positive impact can also be attributed to reduced fertility and information exposure through TV viewing. On the contrary, we find little evidence that the impact is attributable to the improvement of local health facilities. Our findings underscore the importance of evaluating infrastructure programs such as rural electrification from a broad perspective as their impacts may go well beyond the economic benefits considered in a typical cost–benefit analysis. This in turn may encourage governments to invest more in basic infrastructure, which is still severely lacking in Bangladesh and many other countries in the rest of South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy is instrumental for the development and economic growth of a country. Although Bangladesh is known as a developing country in South Asia, it has been recognized as a model country by the United Nations for its remarkable achievements in attaining the United Nations Millennium Development Goals. Successive governments of the country have taken several developmental initiatives that aim to improve the standard of living and to provide basic rights to the citizens. An increase in the demand for energy, particularly electricity, is a normal consequence of many of these initiatives. Thus, the provision of sufficient electricity has become a genuine challenge for the government. Studies have indicated that even if the national demand for electricity remains static, another 35 years is required by the government to provide electricity to all, given the current production pace. Providing electricity to all may nearly be an impossible task because of the ever-increasing demand for electricity. The situation in rural areas, where many people are deprived of electricity supply, is even severe. Fortunately, this coastal and agro-based country is geographically located in an area that has a potential in exploiting different renewable forms of energy. Therefore, renewable energy sources can be considered potential solutions to satisfy the future energy demand of the country and to provide electricity, particularly in rural areas. Bangladesh is one of the countries that is seriously vulnerable to the effects of climate change; hence, the use of renewable energy can contribute to mitigate the effects of both climate change and environmental degradation in the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the country's rural electrification program, kerosene is the predominant source for lighting, and woody biomass is virtually the only option available for cooking. The rural population also struggles with unsafe drinking water in terms of widespread arsenic contamination of well water. Biogas plants and pV are individually impractical to serve both cooking, lighting and water purification systems, and their combined applications are extremely limited. This study considers a holistic approach towards tackling both of these issues via integrated renewable energy-based polygeneration employed at the village level. The polygeneration unit under consideration provides electricity via a pV array and animal and agriculture waste-fed digester, which in turn is coupled to a gas engine. Excess digester gas is employed for cooking and lighting, while waste heat from the process drives a membrane distillation unit for water purification. Technical assessments and optimization have been conducted with HOMER (Hybrid Optimization of Multiple Energy Resources). Results show that daily electricity demand can be met with such a system while simultaneously providing 0.4 m 3 cooking fuel and 2–3 L pure drinking water. Cost estimates indicate that this approach is highly favorable to other renewable options. The pay back period of such system is between 3 and 4 years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conventionally, modelling of hybrid renewable energy systems emphasizes on the technical, economic and environmental features of these systems and disregards their social implications. This study focuses on modelling a hybrid renewable system that is both economic, environmentally benign and at the same time socially beneficial by including a social indicator in the design criteria. A hybrid renewable energy system comprising solar photovoltaic (PV), wind turbine (WT), micro-hydro turbine (MHT), biogas generator (BG) and vanadium redox flow (VRF) battery is proposed to meet the community load demand varying in the range of 951–1526 kWh/day in a remote rural part of Bangladesh. The enormous prospect of job creation from renewable technologies and the prevailing poor status of employment sector in Bangladesh makes job creation (number of jobs) an obvious choice as the social indicator. Aside from that, cost of energy ($/kWh) and lifecycle emission (kg CO 2 -eq/yr) are considered as economic and environmental indicators, respectively. Six different configurations are assessed to acquire a system that can meet the demand while satisfying certain technical and reliability constraints. The multi-objective sizing optimization performed using non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm-II reveals that the optimum configuration incorporates 68 kW PV, 90 kW WT, 50 kW MHT, 50 kW BG, and 300 kWh VRF and it offers COE of 0.126 $/kWh, emits 60,116 kg CO 2 -eq/yr and is able to create 0.7396 jobs in the community. • Prospects of including social factors in hybrid system modelling are investigated. • PV/WT/MHT/BG/BES-based hybrid systems are optimized for off-grid rural application. • Energy cost, job creation and life cycle emission are the objective functions. • Six configurations are optimized by NSGA-II for hourly average 39.6–63.6 kW demand. • At a competitive energy cost of 0.126 $/kWh, the optimum system creates 0.74 jobs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the determinants of technology diffusion among the low-income adopters, i.e. those belonging to the bottom of the pyramid market. Our aim is to analyse the variables that determine the adoption rate of Solar Home Systems. The analysis is drawn from a qualitative case study in Bangladesh based on interviews, observation and documents. We re-conceptualize diffusion process into three basic components: source, innovation and adopter. In particular, we focus on the characteristics of the source that are specific to the low-income market. In our case, the source is a social entrepreneur who seeks social wealth rather than economic wealth. Our empirical study may help to illuminate diffusion processes conducted by social entrepreneurs at the bottom of the pyramid because it contributes to a more comprehensive list of variables that affect the innovation adoption rate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The objective of this research is to analyze the characteristics of households installing solar photovoltaic (systems or solar home systems) SHS in Bangladesh where rural electrification, improvement of rural livelihoods, and sustainable development constitute the primary development agenda. This article attempts to quantitatively determine the factors that affect user satisfaction with SHS, so that improving user satisfaction can contribute to expanding the coverage of SHS in the long run. The research evaluates the determinants of user satisfaction and households' perceptions of the benefits of SHS, including the quality of SHS equipment and reduction in energy costs. The econometric analysis reveals that previous poor experience of the frequency of battery repairs and replacement in SHS negatively influences the satisfaction of households with SHS. The research also suggests user satisfaction improves in the households that achieve lower dependence on kerosene. Moreover, the users who receive the benefits of SHS, especially those resulting from an increase in children's study time, show a higher level of satisfaction with SHS. A key message from the findings is that the benefits of a SHS lifestyle as well as the quality of SHS equipment play a significant role in improving user satisfaction with SHS in rural Bangladesh. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Photovoltaic micro utility (MU) systems introduced in the rural areas of Bangladesh in 1999 currently number more than 10,000 systems. This paper presents the details and results of component and system performance of 35 MU systems installed by Grameen Shakti in 7 districts of Bangladesh through survey and performance studies. 50Wp was the most common system size. The average overall efficiency of PV MU systems was 5.4%. The performances of battery and charge controller were also investigated and found to be satisfactory. The actual energy obtained by the users was also very close to the design values though the batteries were slightly oversized for lower capacity systems. The degradation of panel performance was not significant with age. The payback period of these systems were between 4.2 and 6.28years, and the levelized electricity cost of PV MU systems was estimated to be 70 BDT (~0.85 $)/kWh. Users observed that after installing the PV MU systems, their communication with customers and suppliers improved, as well as their comfort. Furthermore, these systems also contributed to reduction of emissions and indoor air pollution. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) model was applied to select the most appropriate package of Solar Home System (SHS) for rural electrification in Bangladesh. Three different packages (75 Wp, 50 Wp and 30 Wp) were considered for selection and expert''s opinions based on three attributes: i) cost, ii) meeting the electricity demand of basic household need and iii) availability of package in local market were taken to quantify relative priorities. After an intensive analysis through AHP model, it was found that 30 Wp system was the most appropriate package (percentage of priority was 42.19%) of SHS for rural electrification in Bangladesh. The useable items of this package are 2 lamps; each 8 Watt capacity and a black and white television. Customers can get it with cash price of BDT 12500 (US$ 162.34), although, different credit and pricing options are also available. 30 Wp SHS is also financially feasible for suppliers with Internal Rate of Return (IRR) value as 28%. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Lack of access to electricity has been considered a major impediment to the growth and development of rural economies. Thus, the provision of electricity and other forms of modern energy has been a priority for many development organizations, including the World Bank. However, few impact studies of electrification have taken the endogeneity of the grid connection into account. Using a cross-sectional survey conducted in 2005 of 20,900 rural households in Bangladesh, this paper examines the welfare impacts of household access to grid electricity after controlling for endogeneity bias. The econometric analysis shows that grid electrification has significant positive impacts on household income, expenditure, and education. The household gain in total income due to electrification is as high as 21 percent, with a 1.5 percentage point reduction in poverty per year. The results also suggest that the income and expenditure effects of electricity connection are higher for better-off households. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The main objective of this research is to determine the characteristics of households installing solar photovoltaic (PV) systems in Bangladesh, a developing country, where rural electrification, improvement of rural livelihoods and sustainable development constitute the primary development agenda. This article attempts to determine quantitatively the factors that affect the two main purchase decisions of PV systems, or solar home systems (SHS). The first purchase decision is the adoption of SHS, the determinants of which are examined using a binary probit model that analyzes the characteristics of households with SHS and without SHS. The second purchase decision is the size of the SHS, the determinants of which are assessed using an ordered probit model for the households using SHS. The results indicate that household income, ownership of rechargeable batteries, kerosene consumption, and the number of mobile phones are the key determinants of the adoption of SHS. While household income is identified as one of the key determinants, this study shows that household income alone cannot explain adequately the variation in households'' SHS adoption. Moreover, the analysis of the choice of SHS capacity also finds that the size of SHS chosen by households is related significantly to the level of kerosene consumption, the number of children, the concern about indoor pollution, and the need for electric lighting in addition to household income. A key message from the findings of this research is that nonincome factors play a significant role in the dissemination of SHS in rural Bangladesh as the level of kerosene consumption is found to have a strong influence on the decision to start using SHS. This research argues that household income is not a sufficient basis for determining the latent demand for SHS in rural Bangladesh. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Renewable energy can potentially play a role in the supply of safe water in Bangladesh, where nearly 70% of the rural population does not have access to electricity. This paper examines the possible application of renewable energy for pumping water from geologically safe deep tubewells to overcome limitations in existing water technologies in the arsenic-contaminated villages in Bangladesh. Renewable energy, national grid electricity, and alternatives such as diesel engines have been considered as sources of power for both suction and submersible pumps in electrified and non-electrified villages. Three locally available renewable energy sources (human energy, biogas, and solar energy) have been assessed as power sources for reciprocating and submersible pumps. These renewable energy options have not been found cost competitive with the deep tubewells which run off the national grid in electrified villages. However, electricity generated from biogas has the potential to power submersible pumps in non-electrified villages. This paper discusses some financial mechanisms to promote capital-intensive energy options for deep tubewells in arsenic-affected rural areas. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This study was carried out to find the impacts of solar home systems (SHSs) application at selected villages in Gazipur district, Bangladesh. A questionnaire-based survey method was used to collect primary data from the period of October 2004 to January 2005. The research reveals that solar electrification provided direct and indirect benefits to the users of the system, with many implications of a permanent nature. Reduction of kerosene usage was the main impact of SHSs. It resulted in less pollution, higher quality light and more hours of light in the evening, as well as less work for cleaning kerosene lamps. Very few income generation activities were created after acquiring SHSs in the studied villages. But the people who were engaged with business using traditional fuel, switched to solar light that added a little bit more income due to extended working hours in the evening. Women and children were found to benefit from the quality of light for household work and studying in the evening. Users became accustomed to the better quality of light and could not perceive returning back to kerosene lamps. Solar electrification also added to the overall comfort and satisfaction of the consumers. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: When renewable energy technologies are used in decentralized and remote areas, they can be coupled with diesel generators to improve the total system reliability. In this paper, wind–diesel generator–battery, wind–photovoltaic (PV)–diesel generator–battery, PV–diesel generator–battery hybrid and diesel generator systems for generating electricity in the rural areas of Bangladesh are analyzed. The main objective of the present study is to determine the optimum size of systems able to fulfill the requirements of 50kWh/day primary load with 11kW peak load for 50 households for three remote sites located at Cox''s Bazar, Sylhet and Dinajpur. The methodology applied provides a useful and simple approach for sizing and analyzing the hybrid systems using HOMER, an optimization model for renewable energies. The aim is to identify a configuration among a set of systems that meets the desired system reliability requirements with the lowest electricity unit cost. The result of the analysis is a list of feasible power supply systems, sorted according to their net present cost. Furthermore, sensitivity diagrams, showing the influence of solar radiation, wind speed and diesel prices on the optimum solutions are also presented. The analysis results show that PV (6kW)–diesel generator (10kW)–battery hybrid system is most economically feasible and least cost of energy is about 25.4Tk/kWh (1 USD=68.5Taka). The result also indicates that the decrease in CO2 emissions by using the feasible hybrid system with 40% renewable fraction is about 38% as compared to the diesel-only system. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper discusses the institutional reforms for rural electrification (RE) in Thailand and Bangladesh and analyzes the impacts of private sector participation in electricity generation and tariff reforms on the poor in Thailand. The RE program in Thailand, initiated in 1977, increased electricity access for rural households from 7 % in the early ''70s to 97 % by 2000. In Bangladesh the RE program, initiated in 1977 when electricity access for rural households was almost negligible, could increase the access to only 19 % of rural households by 2000. Financial resources for investment, electricity generation capacity and economic growth were identified as key factors affecting the achievements of the RE programs in the two countries. In Thailand the electrification level and average household electricity consumption were found to be unaffected by private sector participation in electricity generation and tariff reforms during the 1990s. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Unannounced visits were made to health clinics in Bangladesh to determine what proportion of medical professionals were at their assigned post. Averaged over all job categories and types of facility, the absentee rate was 35 percent. The absentee rate for physicians was 40 percent at the larger clinics and 74 percent at the smaller subcenters with a single physician. Whether the medical provider lives near the health facility, the opportunity cost of the provider's time, road access, and rural electrification are highly correlated with the rate and pattern of absenteeism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many rural market places in Bangladesh rely on inefficient and expensive fossil fuel based lighting. Photovoltaic (PV) based electricity is an interesting option to provide quality light and better service in these situations. A PV based micro-utility system was initiated in a rural market in Bangladesh in October 1999. Twenty one shop owners were provided electricity for 5 h a day on fee-for-service basis, and paid a tariff daily. A local operator cum technician was trained to take care of the system and in charge of repair, maintenance and tariff collection. Feedback from the users of the system indicates that PV based electricity has been providing very satisfactory service to the consumers. The success of this type of PV dissemination model has been due to the users’ willingness to pay a daily tariff, clear agreements with the Bazaar Management Committee and users, and operator training. The model proved to be successful and two more rural markets showed interest in this approach of rural electrification. This is likely to succeed in other countries with similar socio-economic conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aims of this paper are to develop hybrid energy systems considering biomass energy sources as well as a framework and optimal configuration of hybrid systems of energy for a southern sub-urban area of Bhola district in Bangladesh, named Kukri Mukri island, and analyse the feasibility of the techno-economic prospects of these systems. In this work, electrification for the rural area is analysed for different configurations of the hybrid systems. The estimation of available resources with optimal sizing and analysis of techno-economic aspects is done through HOMER Pro software to satisfy the demand of peak load. Different configurations of hybrid energy systems, including PV/diesel, PV/wind, PV/diesel/wind, PV/wind/diesel/biomass, and wind/diesel, are analysed and compared through optimization of different energy sources in HOMER. The size of the system and components are optimized and designed depending on the net present cost (NPC) and the levelized cost of energy (LCOE). Due to the lower availability and rising cost of wind energy, the outcome of this work shows a solar-based photovoltaic (PV) as the main energy source, battery as the storage media, and diesel generator as an energy source for backup. The results indicate that LCOE is much lower for PV/wind/diesel/biomass (0.142 USD/kWh) than PV/diesel (0.199 USD/kWh), PV/wind (0.239 USD/kWh), PV/diesel/wind (0.167 USD/kWh), PV/diesel (0.343 USD/kWh), and wind/diesel (0.175 USD/kWh). Additionally, it is demonstrated from the research that the genetic algorithm (GA) process gives sustainable and cost-effective outcomes compared to HOMER. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mini-grids providing higher tier electricity services are often introduced in areas with existing solar home systems (SHS). This raises the questions of competition among different options, commercial viability of the mini-grids, or a duplication of highly subsidized resources. A survey of 477 households in off-grid areas of Bangladesh was conducted to find out factors affecting the households' choice of domestic electricity. The study utilizes a multinomial logit model to investigate how household demographic, educational, income, wealth and infrastructure factors affect electricity choice in off-grid areas, and a Heckman two stage model to explore how these factors affect energy stacking. Finally, a Tobit model and a Heckman model are used to find out how household characteristics affect the expenditure on electricity from solar mini-grids (SMG). It was found that the level of female education in the family leads to the choice of higher tier clean electricity services, whereas male education influences the total expenditure on electricity. Property ownership predicts choice of higher tier electricity access. Households with more income and higher education of males stack solar home systems with mini-grid connection. Stacking households actually spend more on mini-grid electricity. The findings of the study has implications on energy policy and investment for off-grid rural electrification and energy poverty alleviation. • Off-grid households are surveyed for choice of and expenditure on electricity. • Higher education of females leads to choice of higher tier clean electricity. • Property ownership predicts higher tier electricity choice. • Higher education of males leads to stacking and more expenditure. • Stacking households spend more on mini-grid electricity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The recent migration of Rohingya refugees from Myanmar has drawn significant attention to Bangladesh. To accommodate these refugees, the government of Bangladesh (GoB1) plans to shift them from Cox's Bazar to Bhasan Char, which is an off-grid coastal area. Renewable energy technologies (RETs2) could, in fact, be the only option to electrify the region. However, a detailed analysis is required to justify the suitability of different RETs. For this reason, an Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP3) integrated Combinative Distance-based Assessment (CODAS4) hybrid multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM5) method is proposed to identify the best RET in the study area. The present study considers solar-wind hybrid energy system, solar mini-grid and wind mini-grid RETs for investigation. In total, thirteen sub-criteria under four criteria covering technical, economic, environmental and socio-political aspects were selected based on the agreement of experts. AHP method was deployed to find the weights of the criteria. Finally, a new MCDM method, namely CODAS, was applied to obtain the rank of the RETs. The results reveal that the solar-wind hybrid energy system is the best technology as it obtains the highest appraisal score. A sensitivity analysis was carried out by changing a threshold parameter in CODAS method to check the consistency of the rank order. The comparative study identified the utility of the proposed hybrid MCDM method. Therefore, the proposed method can be identified as effective in enhancing the value of information and can be accepted as a useful tool to ease the decision making problem in the development of RETs in Bhasan Char for Rohingya refugees. • Renewable Energy Technologies Ranking for Rohingya Refugees using AHP-CODAS Method. • Experts have Strong Agreement regarding Criteria Selection. • Economic and Technical is determined as most Important Criteria. • Solar-Wind Hybrid Energy System is the Best Technology for Bhasan Char. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study conducted a questionnaire-led survey to explore the financial feasibility and socio-environmental impacts of stand-alone solar home systems (SHS) through stratified random sampling. Based on the above consideration, fifteen cases of studies of various watt peak (Wp) capacities have been investigated to evaluate the economic viability of solar home systems. The results revealed that most of the cases have positive net present value (NPV) and low payback periods, with an internal rate of return (IRR) value ranging from 16% to 131%, which signifies a high rate of investment exchange. Solar home systems are economically profitable for micro-enterprises and households with low-income generation activities as opposed to the households using it only for lighting. The study found that solar home systems with a capacity above 30 Wp are the most economically viable option, which can also avoid 6.15 to 7.34 tonnes of CO2 emissions during the 20 years of life-cycle, while providing different applications including lighting, recreation, information, health, and economic benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Only 47% of the populations in Bangladesh have access to electricity and per capita electricity use is 183 kWh p.a. which is very low compared to other developing countries. The government has the policy and vision to supply electricity to all citizens by 2020. Decentralized electricity generation by renewable energy can help the country to fulfill its Vision 2020. This paper discusses about the present status of solar home system (SHS) and photovoltaic (PV) micro utility in Bangladesh. Recommendation for further expansion and upgrading also described with the village electrification model and implementation model. Around 1.4 × 106, solar home systems are installed in the rural areas of Bangladesh by February 2013 by various installers. PV systems increase the quality of life, generate income, improve children education by providing good quality of light, and reduce health hazard and risk of fire by reducing kerosene burning. Under the PV micro utility model, an entrepreneur installs the PV system at his own premise and shares the electricity generated with neighbors. These systems are popular at rural market places in Bangladesh as users of this kind no need to buy PV system. Study suggests that 10 000 such systems are installed so far and most preferred micro utility is 50 Wp by the users. It is understood that appropriate policy towards PV micro utility, initiative to available PV accessories locally within the country and proper monitoring and dedicated maintenance support can make PV micro utility program more successful in Bangladesh like SHSs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]