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Mechanical thermal expression (MTE) was used for dewatering two lignites, Loy Yang (LY) from Australia and Shengli (SL) from China. The dewatering process was carried out with temperatures ranging from 24°C to 240°C. It was found that the moisture content of the MTE products decreased linearly with increasing temperature, and the residual moisture content was a function of compressibility. The MTE process was more effective for the low-rank LY lignite. The characterization of the lignite includes moisture content, C/H ratio, pore volume distribution from mercury intrusion porosimetry and, coal–water interaction from low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LFNMR). Coal–water interaction only changed slightly with mechanical compression alone. Combined with heat mechanical effect found to compress the residual moisture into smaller pores. The coal–water interaction is stronger in the smaller pores, which makes dewatering progressively more difficult. The chemical characteristics were studied by solid-state 13C NMR, where no significant changes were apparent. Total organic carbon (TOC) analysis showed higher content of organics in the LY wastewater than in the SL wastewater. The chemical composition of the wastewater was analyzed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and it was found that the majority of the compounds from LY and SL detected were acids, accounting for more than 50% of the organic compounds, followed by aromatic hydrocarbons, accounting for 27% in LY and 38% in SL wastewater. Lower levels of alkenes, alcohols, esters, and aliphatic hydrocarbons were also found in the wastewater. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An investigation has been conducted to identify the reaction mechanism and compressive strength of geopolymer made from brown coal fly ash from two locations at Yallourn power station in Australia. The Yallourn-1 (Y1) ash has completed the storage period within the pond, whereas Yallourn-2 (Y2) ash has been stored in the pond for a short period of time. Compressive strength of Y1 geopolymer increased from 12.63 MPa (1.83 ksi) at 7 days to 13.62 MPa (1.98 ksi) at 28 days and 15.90 MPa (2.31 ksi) by 90 days, whereas Y2 achieved 13.26 MPa (1.92 ksi) at 7 days but reduced in strength to 8.55 MPa (1.24 ksi) by 28 days, followed by an increase in strength to 14.00 MPa (2.03 ksi) by 90 days. The low strengths observed is attributed to the low of alumina content of the Yallourn ash, coupled with the higher unburnt carbon content. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Industrial sources, including iron ore sintering, municipal waste incineration and non-ferrous metal processing have been prominent emitters of dioxins to the environment. With the expanding industrial sectors, many international conventions were established in order to reduce the emission of dioxins in the past two decades. The Stockholm convention, a global monitoring treaty, entered into force in 2004 with the aim to promote development of strategies to reduce or eliminate dioxin emissions. According to the convention, parties are required to develop national inventory databases to report emission levels and develop a national implementation plan (NIP) to reduce further dioxin emissions. In order to understand the trend of dioxin emissions since 1990s this study provides a comparative assessment of dioxin emissions from different industrial sources by deriving emission data from the national inventory databases of Australia, Canada and the 28 European countries (EU-28). According to the data collected, iron and steel production and electricity generation were the highest emitters of dioxins in 2017 for Europe, Canada and Australia, when compared to other stationary industrial sources. The change in the trend of dioxin emissions from the iron and steel industry and the public electricity sector was also assessed. The emission of dioxins during 1990–2017 from both iron and steel production and electricity generation revealed a relative decreasing trend, except for Spain and Italy who showed higher level of emissions from iron and steel production in 2017. Furthermore, comparing emission data for metal production revealed that the blast furnace process was the prominent emitter of dioxins comparing to electric arc furnace process. Further investigation was performed to compare the amount of dioxin emitted from three different fuel types, black coal, brown coal and natural gas, used for electricity generation in Australia. The study showed that dioxin emissions from brown coal were higher than black coal for the last two years, while power production from natural gas emits the lowest amounts of dioxins to the environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the impact of generation mix, encompassing fossil fuels (black and brown coal and natural gas) and renewables (hydropower and wind power) on daily spot electricity prices across the five regional electricity markets in the Australian National Electricity Market (NEM) from January 2006 to June 2012. The objective is to gain insights into the emergent effect of government policy and industry developments regarding the choice of generation on wholesale electricity prices. Using least squares and quantile regressions, it is found that the changing generation mix used for producing electricity exerts a strong influence on wholesale prices. This is especially the case with prices expected to increase markedly with the increasing utilization of gas-fired generation used to support the intermittent and variable production from renewables and from the policy-driven use of renewables wind power associated with the current renewable energy target and carbon taxation in Australia. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Coal solubilisation is often a necessary step for the alternative utilisation of the cheap and abundant brown coal resources in the State of Victoria, Australia, such as producing high quality fuel or chemicals. A series of ionic liquids (ILs), ammonium carbamates, formed by the association of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) with low molecular weight secondary amines, were investigated as solvents for the solubilisation of Victorian brown coal. The ionic liquid was mixed with a Loy Yang coal at a mass ratio of 20 to 1 (dry basis) for 24 h at ambient temperature. The solubilisation yields of the coal using three such ILs from dimethyl-, diallyl- and dipropyl-amines, respectively, were between 18% and 23%. Repeated solubilisation of the coal with fresh solvent achieved higher yields, with the highest at 66% by the carbamate formed from dimethylamine (DIMCARB). The variations in chemical structure between the products were compared by elemental analysis and a variety of spectroscopic techniques (FTIR, Solid State 13 C NMR and Py–GC–MS). The soluble products of the initial solubilisation were more aliphatic than their parent coal. The less polar ILs formed from diallyl- and dipropyl-amines (DACARB and DPCARB) appeared to be more selective for high molecular weight triterpenoids than DIMCARB. Subsequent treatment tended to dissolve more aromatic components. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we propose a market mechanism for regulated exit of highly emissions intensive power stations from the electricity grid. The starting point is that there is surplus capacity in coal fired power generation in Australia. In the absence of a carbon price signal, black coal generation capacity may leave the market instead of high emitting brown coal power stations. We lay out options for a mechanism of regulated power station closure using a market mechanism. Plants bid competitively over the payment they require for closure, the regulator chooses the most cost effective bid, and payment for closure is made by the remaining power stations in proportion to their carbon dioxide emissions. This could overcome adverse incentive effects for plants to stay in operation in anticipation of payment for closure and solve the political difficulties and problems of information asymmetry that plague government payments for closure and direct regulation for exit. We explore the issues theoretically and provide empirical illustrations. These suggest that closure of a brown coal fired power station in Australia could yield emissions savings at costs that are lower than the social benefits. The analysis in this paper is applicable to other countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lithotype cycles (ranging from 10 to 30 m thick) in the brown coals of the Latrobe Valley, Gippsland Basin, Australia, display well-developed lightening-upward trends. Cycle tops are characterized by abrupt and unconformable boundaries with the overlying cycle. Geological, geochemical, palynological and macrofossil evidence is consistent with a relative drying (terrestrialization) upward depositional model for the cycles. The abundance of charcoal in dark lithotypes near the cycle bases is explained by the fire-prone and highly flammable nature of the herbaceous/reed wetlands, in common with similar modern wetlands in modern Australasia, in which the dark lithotypes are suggested to have formed. This, together with the greater preservation potential of charcoal in subaqueous environments, results in the wettest facies of the Latrobe Valley coals having the highest charcoal contents. Despite prevailing warm, wet climate conditions and the predominance of rainforests that are suggested to have characterized the Cenozoic of southern Australia, some swamp taxa were clearly already pre-adapted to tolerate fire and are likely to have been the ancestors of the fire-adapted floral communities of modern arid Australia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: We had investigated feasible measures to reduce CO2 emission and came to conclusion that introduction of new fuel such as hydrogen with near zero CO2 emission is required for achieving Japan''s commitment of 80% CO2 reduction by 2050. Under this background, we are proposing and aiming to realize “CO2 free hydrogen chain” utilizing Australian brown coal linked with CCS. In this chain, hydrogen produced from brown coal is liquefied and transported to Japan by liquid hydrogen carrier. We have conducted feasibility study of commercial scale “CO2 free hydrogen chain”, whose result shows the chain is technically and economically feasible. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The resources sectors have been the engine of Australian economic growth in recent years, but there is a tremendous fear currently that the carbon tax policy introduced in July 2012 will kill this resources boom. By employing a computable general equilibrium model and an environmentally extended social accounting matrix, this article simulates the effects of Australian carbon tax on the resources sectors. The modelling results show that all resources sectors will be affected negatively but to different degrees. The brown coal sector will be hit dramatically with 25.36% decrease in output, 52.79% decrease in employment and 89.12% decrease in profitability. However, the other resources sectors are only mildly affected. Under the carbon tax, the resources sectors contribute significantly to the total emission reductions in Australia, especially in terms of activity emissions. Given the fact that brown coal accounts only for a small portion of the output of natural resources and is not export-oriented, it is reasonable to suggest that a carbon tax will not significantly affect the overall performance of the resources sectors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Coal has been utilized as a nonprecious metal catalyst for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) in a polymer electrolyte fuel cell. The Australia brown coal was nitrogen-doped at 673–1123K in a stream of NH3. The raw and NH3-treated Australia brown coals were characterized on the basis of their N2 adsorption, Raman spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The nitrogen doping of the coal at 1073K increased the BET surface area from 10 to 671m2/g having 95% slit-shaped micropores with a type I monolayer adsorption. The nitrogen-doped coal at 1073K exhibited the highest potential of 0.85V vs. RHE (at −0.005mA/cm2), which was evaluated by three-electrode electrochemical measurements using a rotating ring disk electrode in a 0.5M H2SO4 aqueous solution. The ORR activity of the nitrogen-doped coal was related to the pyridine-N species, microporosity and degree of disordered carbons in the coal. The iron addition to the coal from 10 to 103 ppm increased the ORR onset potential. The active structure of the coal-derived catalyst was discussed based on the results of the XPS, Raman, N2 adsorption and iron effect. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Transformation of various sulphur forms, including inherent and added pyrite, sulphates (CaSO4 and FeSO4) and organic sulphur, during pyrolysis of an Australian lignite was studied using TGA, TGA-MS and a fixed bed reactor, supplemented by sulphur form analysis. It was shown that hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and a small quantity of sulphur dioxide (SO2) were released during the pyrolysis of the pyrite-lignite blend. However, only SO2 was detected during the pyrolysis of the lignite with high pyrite content. Inorganic matter was found to help retaining some of the inorganic sulphur, including pyrite, in the char. Inherent sulphates decomposed at much lower temperatures than the added sulphates, releasing SO2 rather than H2S. The inherent sulphates in the lignite were dominated by iron sulphates which started to decompose and release SO2 at around 500K and all sulphate had been decomposed at 1073K. The retention of organic sulphur in the high organic sulphur lignite was higher than in its acid washed lignite sample, due to the interaction between inherent inorganic matter with the organic sulphur retaining the organic sulphur in the solid phase. SO2 was the only sulphur gas produced during pyrolysis of acid washed lignite. A comprehensive mechanism of sulphur transformation during pyrolysis of lignite was proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Commissioned in 2009, the CO2CRC/H3 Capture Project is demonstrating post-combustion carbon capture (PCC) on a lignite fired power plant in the Latrobe Valley, Victoria, Australia. The facility is located within International Power’s Hazelwood Power Plant and uses three different CO2 capture technologies — solvent, adsorption and membrane processes. This project, addressing the PCC issues specific for Victorian brown coal fired power stations, was initiated in July 2007 as a three year research project by the Cooperative Research Centre for Greenhouse Gas Technologies (CO2CRC) under the Victorian State Government’s Energy Technology Innovation Strategy (ETIS) program. The project is part of the Latrobe Valley Post Combustion Capture (LVPCC) Project — a multi site, multi scale, multi technology PCC trial. The integrated research and development program includes an evaluation of these technologies for commercial scale application. This paper describes the technologies used, how they have progressed from laboratory to pilot demonstration, the main outcomes, and plans for future developments. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This study is part of a program assessing the suitability of chemical looping for direct combustion of Victorian brown coal. The performance of NiO as an oxygen carrier in presence of a dried Victorian brown coal was assessed during five alternating cycles of reduction and oxidation in a CO2 environment using a TGA. The experiments indicate a 4.4–7.5% weight loss of the oxygen carrier per cycle. Preliminary SEM-EDX and FACTSAGE predictions also indicate weight loss, but not to the same extent. The percentage of combustion of coal achieved at the 5th cycle was approximately 67%. Cycle 2 showed maximum reactivity (during reduction) with a decreasing trend during the subsequent cycles. These initial experiments did not reveal much agglomeration between ash and NiO although longer duration experiments are required to explore this issue further. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Transformation of pyrite in an Australian lignite during pyrolysis was studied using a thermogravimetric analyser (TGA) and a fixed-bed reactor. Samples of a lignite with high pyrite content, a pyrite-free lignite, acid-washed lignite, a pyrite mineral, and pyrite-free lignite blended with various amounts of the pyrite minerals were employed in the experimentation. It was shown that in nitrogen the pyrite mineral (S/Fe=2) decomposes to troilite (S/Fe=1) at ca. 1200K and above this temperature, some of the troilite further decomposes to form elemental iron (S/Fe<1). However, when blended with the demineralised lignite, the pyrite mineral can be completely decomposed to troilite at 873K as confirmed by FTIR, SEM-EDS and XRD analyses on the resulting chars. During the TGA pyrolysis of the pyrite–lignite blends, two DTG peaks were observed, indicating two major decomposition events occurring. The first DTG peak was related to the devolatilisation of the lignite, while the second peak was attributed to the pyrite decomposition. Using a mass spectroscopy coupled with the TGA, it was revealed that hydrogen sulphide and a small quantity of sulphur dioxide were released during the pyrolysis of the pyrite–lignite blends. However, only sulphur dioxide was detected during the pyrolysis of the lignite with high pyrite content. This is attributed to the reactions of the inherent pyrite with oxygenates in the lignite structure. By analysing sulphur retention in the chars, it was shown that inherent inorganic matter in the raw lignite retains part of the sulphur in the solid phase. For the pyrite–lignite blends, pyrite initially decomposes to form FeS, some of which further decomposes to elemental iron at a much slower rate. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In Australia, one of the challenges in deploying CO2 capture and storage is the cost of implementing capture at the large number of lignite power plants. This study investigates the cost of retrofitting CO2 capture to a typical 500 MW lignite coal-fired power plant in Australia, and includes the costs for CO2 separation and compression of the CO2 in preparation for transport via pipeline to a storage site. The results show that the cost for CO2 capture using MEA solvent is over US$70 per tonne CO2 avoided. Using alternative solvent technology reduces the cost to less than US$30 (approximately A$35) per tonne CO2 avoided. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The carbon-isotope and palynological record through 580 m thick almost continuous brown coal in southeast Australia''s Gippsland Basin is a relatively comprehensive southern hemisphere Middle Eocene to Middle Miocene record for terrestrial change. The carbon isotope δ13Ccoal values of these coals range from −27.7‰ to −23.2. This isotopic variability follows gymnosperm/angiosperm fluctuations, where higher ratios coincide with heavier δ 13C values. There is also long-term variability in carbon isotopes through time. From the Eocene greenhouse world of high gymnosperm-heavier δ 13Ccoal values, there is a progressive shift to lighter δ 13Ccoal values that follows the earliest (Oi1?) glacial events around 33 Ma (Early Oligocene). The overlying Oligocene–Early Miocene brown coals have lower gymnosperm abundance, associated with increased %Nothofagus (angiosperm), and lightening of isotopes during Oligocene cooler conditions. The Miocene palynological and carbon-isotope record supports a continuation to the Oligocene trends until around the late Early Miocene (circa 19 Ma) when a warming commenced, followed by an even stronger isotope shift around 16 Ma that peaked in the Middle Miocene when higher gymnosperm abundance and heavier isotopes prevailed. The cycle between the two major warm peaks of Middle Eocene and Middle Miocene was circa 30 Ma long. This change corresponds to a fall in inferred pCO2 levels for the same period. The Gippsland data suggest a link between gymnosperm abundance, long-term plant δ 13C composition, climatic change, and atmospheric pCO2. Climatic deterioration in the Late Miocene terminated peat accumulation in the Gippsland Basin and no further significant coals formed in southeast Australia. The poor correspondence between this terrestrial isotope data and the marine isotope record is explained by the dominant control on δ 13C by the gymnosperm/angiosperm abundance, although in turn this poor correspondence may reflect palaeoclimate control. From the brown coal seam dating, the coal appears to have accumulated during a considerable part of the allocated 30 Ma Cenozoic time period. These brown coal carbon isotope and palynological data appear to record a more gradual atmospheric carbon isotope change compared to the marine record. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The 100-m thick Middle Miocene Yallourn brown coal seam was the last of the major Latrobe Valley Group seams to form in the Gippsland Basin (southeastern Australia) and the final major coal to form in Australia. Coal deposition coincided with the Middle Miocene climatic optimum. During this warm period of relatively high sea-levels, high water tables and relatively high subsidence rates, a 565 km2 area of alternating eutrophic and ombrogenous peat swamp developed at the western end of the Latrobe Valley to form the Yallourn Seam. Stratigraphic units of the seam contain a high sclerophyll plant component and abundant charcoal, suggesting seasonal dry periods alternated with wet warm conditions characterised by abundant rushes and dense kauri forests. Iron content in parts of the Yallourn Seam is relatively high, and a strong correlation exists between the iron distribution and the abundance of proteoid roots (mainly Proteaceae) — an indicator of seasonal dry periods. The contemporaneous carbonates of the Wuk Wuk Marl were deposited in a high-productivity, upwelling, warmer water (subtropical) environment. A new carbon isotope profile at 1 m intervals through the Yallourn Seam shows a poor relationship between δ 13C isotopes and coal colour, but some correlation with Gymnosperm abundance. The δ 13C record also correlates well with long-term secular changes in climate, the presence of global carbon maxima CM2–CM4, and with the deep-sea δ 13C marine organic record. Thick coal seam development ended near the end of the Middle Miocene climatic optimum. The termination of coal seam deposition in Latrobe Valley was primarily the result of tectonic compression, uplift and development of adjacent highland relief, and erosion at the end of the Miocene. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The UN Global Mercury Assessment (GMA) estimates that atmospheric emissions of mercury from Australian stationary combustion sources were 97. 0tonnes for the year of 1995. This is more than 90% of the estimated emissions from stationary combustion for the whole of North America, and seems abnormally high for a country with a population of around 20 million, in spite of the fact that most of Australia''s stationary energy supply is provided by coal. It is also significantly larger than previous estimates of mercury emissions from Australian sources. New estimates of Australian mercury emissions from stationary energy sources, based on both a top down and bottom up approach, are presented. These estimates can be reconciled for black coal fired power stations, but suggest that the bottom up approach (the Australian National Pollutant Inventory) significantly under-estimates emissions from brown coal fired plant, if mercury capture efficiencies in these plants are low, as observed for lignite-fired plant. The major uncertainties in these estimates are the coal mercury content in coals burnt in Australian power stations, and the mercury capture efficiency in particulate control devices used at these stations. Based on these estimates, Australian emissions of mercury from stationary energy are currently 2–8tonnes/year, significantly lower than the GMA estimate. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Mechanical Thermal Expression (MTE), a novel non-evaporative brown coal (lignite) dewatering process, is being developed to increase the efficiency of power stations in the Latrobe Valley (Victoria, Australia). A by-product of this process is a large volume (potentially 20 giga liters per annum) product water stream. This paper examines water quality requirements for reuse and disposal within the Latrobe Valley and their compatibility with MTE process water. It has been established that remediation of this water will be required and that the maintenance of environmental flows in surface waters would be the most suitable use for the remediated water. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the economic importance of coal to the Australian economy, detailed studies of controls on variation in coal type are remarkably few. However, important contributions have been made in the understanding of coal facies development. Tertiary lignite deposits of the Gippsland Basin provide key insights into the development of lithotype cyclicity and its relationship to relative sea-level changes, with individual paling-up cycles being correlated to parasequences. Studies of Permian hard coals have identified relationships between coal type and surrounding sediments. Unfortunately, these relationships have been widely over-interpreted in a manner that has diminished their real value. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In 2014, the Morwell brown coal mine, located in the Latrobe Valley of South eastern Australia, caught fire covering nearby areas in plumes of smoke over a 6-week period. To investigate the association between exposure to mine fire related air pollution and the risk of mortality. Time series models were used to evaluate the risk of mortality during the first 30 days of the mine fire, when the smoke was most intense, and in the following six months. Associations were also investigated between mine fire related PM 2.5 and mortality. During the 30-day mine fire period, there was an increased risk of death from injury in the most exposed town of Morwell, however no increased risk was observed for all-cause, cardiovascular or respiratory mortality. In the broader Latrobe Valley, males and residents aged 80 and above were at greatest risk of death from injury during the mine fire. In Morwell, during the six months after the mine fire there was an increased risk of all-cause mortality and death from Ischaemic Heart Disease (IHD). Males and residents aged 80 and above in the broader Latrobe Valley, were at increased risk of death from IHD six months after the fire. Coal mine fire exposure was associated with an increase in injury deaths during the mine fire and cardiovascular deaths in the six months after the fire. These findings assist in identifying at risk groups, and improving targeted health advice for future air pollution exposures in the community. • There was an increase in injury related deaths during the mine fire period. • Coal mine fire related PM 2.5 was associated with increases in injury related deaths. • There was an increase in cardiovascular deaths during the six months after the mine fire period. • No increases in respiratory related deaths were observed in relation to exposure to the mine fire. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We used a microcosm experiment to simulate initial soil development in rehabilitation mixtures. • The formation of large macroaggregates was induced by all mixtures within 40 days. • Litter addition intensifies the rapid formation of large aggregates. • Paper mulch and brown coal indicate slow microbial decay and OC storage. • Fly ash addition leads to higher water holding capacity in the mixtures. When ceasing brown coal mining activities, the restoration of the disturbed landscape is required, and a rapid development of functional soils is of utter importance for the rehabilitation of these areas. In order to accelerate soil development and rehabilitation, soils are designed or engineered by applying alternative approaches in order to construct a soil-like substrate, e.g., by mixing different substrates and organic carbon (OC) sources. We used a rapid and easy to perform laboratory approach to simulate the initial steps of soil development. We investigated the mixtures' properties and the initial development of soil structure, in order to identify suitable soil mixtures for subsequent field trials. We tested six different mixtures composed of increasing complexity, based on the mixture used for a rehabilitation program at a coal mine in southern Australia. The components were overburden, fly ash, paper mulch, brown coal and plant litter. We performed a short-term laboratory incubation in regularly irrigated microcosms for forty days at constant water tension. Our results showed that the addition of fly ash to the overburden led to a higher moisture content. Fly ash together with paper mulch and brown coal improved nutrient supply and OC content, but led also to a very wide C/N ratio >95. The molecular composition of the paper mulch and brown coal OC shows the potential for long-term OC storage because of slow microbial degradation. Microbial activity, as measured by CO 2 release, was high in all mixtures with litter addition, but only the additional presence of fly ash, brown coal and paper mulch led to a higher microbial carbon use efficiency (CUE). Soil structure formation, as measured by isolating water-stable aggregates, was induced in all mixtures and intensified in the presence of litter. In the mixtures with litter, there was a predominant formation of large macroaggregates (0.63−30 mm) which stored >80 % of the total OC. We suggest that the complex rehabilitation mixture indicates the potential for soil structure development within a short timeframe also in field scale, because the tested substrates are known to store moisture, deliver nutrients and OC for sustainable microbial growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A consortium of Japanese companies is working on a demonstration project to build an international supply chain for transportation of hydrogen to Japan, in the form of zero-carbon liquefied hydrogen produced from unused brown coal (lignite) in Australia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Menard pressuremeter testing has been widely used in geotechnical engineering applications for 40 years and is an important technique in determining in-situ horizontal stress distributions. In this study, Menard pressuremeter testing is combined with a "cookie-cutter" insertion technique to determine horizontal stresses for a soft-rock in an operational Australian mine. The method presents an alternative to the Self-Bored Pressuremeter, with cookie-cutter drill rods allowing for sample recovery and further laboratory testing. The method accommodates for the presence of gravel and hard layered materials that present a risk of damage to cutting shoes of Self-Bored Pressuremeter devices. The combination of a sonic drill rig, coupled with the cookie cutter rods produces a close tolerance pocket resulting in "pseudo self boring pressuremeter tests". The undrained shear strength, unload-reload shear modulus and in-situ horizontal stress are presented from pressuremeter tests conducted in the region for the first time. The undrained shear strength was observed in the range of 0.47–0.57 MPa, the unload-reload shear modulus between 17.43 and 18.25 MPa, the lift-off pressure in the range of 0.35–0.61 MPa. The K 0 of coal was equal to 1, with interseam materials ranging from 2.1 to 3.5. Results of the cookie-cutter insertion method are compared with conventional drilling methods, with the cookie-cutter insertion test providing results in good agreement with both advanced triaxial laboratory tests and FEM numerical analysis. Cookie-cutter pressuremeter tests were conducted on cohesive soils at Australia's second-largest open-pit mine, with pressuremeter test results presented for Victorian brown coal for the first time. • A novel drilling technique is proposed for Menard pressuremeter testing of soft rock and intermediate geotechnical materials. • Pressuremeter tests are conducted in Victorian brown coal for the first time. • Results of the cookie-cutter insertion method are presented in comparison with conventional rotary drilling methods. • Results derived from pressuremeter tests are compared with laboratory tests and validated with numerical models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article addresses transnational 'retrofit' brown coal hydrogen generation energy systems. Retrofit energy supply-chains, from generation to end product, encompass fossil fuel energy generation with retrofitted carbon capture and storage (CCS), for clean energy [hydrogen] output. Three research questions are posited: can an energy security framework be identified for analysis of fossil fuel retrofit hydrogen exports; what findings arise from applying the framework to a case study of Australian exports of coal-generated hydrogen to Japan; and are such international energy systems compromised by sub-optimal carbon-emitting supply chains, with potential implications for global energy justice? A systematic literature review identified a modified framework, further developed in this article to catalyse global energy security-justice analysis; contributing a useful energy security-justice tool. Applying the framework, findings illustrate key opportunities in Australia/Japan's energy diversification, supply security, and bilateral trade-strategic security relationships. Key risks include emissions and economic costs, risks in the production process, shipping complexities, and doubts concerning CCS. Interests of conservative politics and pro-coal/CCS influencers dominate how security is framed, deprioritising energy justice concerns and privileging coal interests and mining jobs over potentially more resilient renewable energy pathways and jobs. The research has implications for future research, policy development and energy system planning. • Energy security frameworks need inclusion of energy justice dimensions. • A revised six-dimension energy security-justice framework is developed. • Brown coal 'retrofit' carbon capture and storage H2 generation export case study. • Security risks/opportunities identified in Australia-Japan coal-hydrogen case. • Energy justice, renewables jobs, emissions and externalities' risks are sidelined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For six weeks from February 9, 2014, smoke and ash from a fire in the Morwell open cut brown coal mine adjacent to the Hazelwood power station covered parts of the Latrobe Valley, in south eastern Australia. To evaluate the health impact of the mine fire, daily counts of ambulance attendances from July 2010 to March 2015 were analysed. Time series models were used to evaluate the relative risk of ambulance attendances during the mine fire, in comparison with the remainder of the analysis period, and to also assess the risk of ambulance attendances associated with lagged effects of exposure to mine fire-related PM 2.5 levels. The models controlled for factors likely to influence ambulance attendances including seasonality, long-term temporal trends, day of the week, daily maximum temperature and public holidays. A 10 μg/m3 increase in fire-related PM 2.5 was found to be associated with a 42% (95%CI: 14–76%) increase in ambulance attendances for respiratory conditions and a 7% (0–14%) increase in all ambulance attendances over a 20-day lag period. A smaller effect associated with exposure to fire-related PM 2.5 was identified when assuming shorter lag effects. Similar results were identified when assessing whether ambulance attendances increased during the 30-day mine fire period. There was a 15% (8–21%) increased risk of ambulance attendances for all conditions and a 47% (19–81%) increased risk for respiratory conditions during the mine fire period. Exposure to smoke and ash from a fire in an open cut brown coal mine was associated with increased ambulance attendances, particularly for respiratory conditions. These findings guide the development and implementation of effective and timely strategies and health service planning to respond and mitigate health risks that arise in affected communities during future major air pollution episodes. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study is to evaluate the suitability of pollutant emission data published in the national pollutant inventories for impact assessment of thermal power generation using Australian technologies as case studies. ReCiPe midpoint and endpoint hierarchist methods were used to investigate the environmental impacts of power stations fuelled with hard coal, brown coal, diesel, coal seam methane, natural gas, landfill gas, sewage gas and bagasse. Brown coal was found to be the most impactful fuel source, followed by hard coal and diesel fuel, all averaging above the Australian national power generation environmental impacts. The renewable energy fuels, bagasse, landfill gas and sewage gas, exhibited the lowest environmental impacts. Global warming and fine particulate matter formation were the two most impactful contributors ranging between 97 and 99.8% of the human health endpoint impacts, while global warming and terrestrial acidification were the most impactful categories to ecosystems contributing between 98.3 and 100% of the ecosystem endpoint impacts. Global warming impacts on human health and ecosystems were the major impactful categories for all fossil fuels, while fine particulate matter formation and terrestrial acidification contributed with the largest respective impacts on human health and ecosystems by the considered renewable energy technologies. The major identified pollutants of concern for the thermal power generation technologies are emissions of greenhouse gases, acidic gases, such as SO 2 and NO x , and PM 2.5. As an interim solution, reduction of the impacts from the fossil fuel technologies can be achieved by targeting the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, better control of acidic gases SO 2 and NO x , and blending of the renewable energy sources, bagasse, landfill gas and sewage gas, with coal and natural gas, however long term solutions would require further reduction in fossil fuel reliance for Australia. • LCA of power generation was performed using national pollutant inventories. • Global warming impacts were the major impactful categories for all fossil fuel technologies. • Fine PM formation and terrestrial acidification were the largest for renewable energy. • Greenhouse gases, acidic gases and PM2.5 are pollutants of concern for power generation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For the stability and deformation analysis of open-cut mines using numerical methods, one critical step is to identify and simulate the elastoplasticity of geomaterials comprising the open-cut batters. The Victorian Brown Coal (VBC) in Australia is a non-textbook geotechnical material with a hardening feature in compression leading to brittle failure while showing a sharp post-peak softening behaviour. In order to study different aspects of elastoplasticity including the hardening and post-peak softening behaviour of the VBC, a series of laboratory tests including one-dimensional oedometer and triaxial tests were carried out on undisturbed VBC specimens taken from 30 m to 50 m below the ground level in one of the largest VBC open-cut mines in Victoria. By post-processing of the triaxial and oedometer test results, a yielding phenomenon was identified at the boundary between the fully elastic and elastoplastic domains. The magnitude of the material stiffness in the elastic domain was found to be independent of the confining pressure in triaxial tests while governed by the chemical bonding of the coal particles. The post-yield behaviour, however, was a frictional hardening and ruled by the magnitude of the confining pressure leading to a failure envelope sensitive to the organic content of the material. In this paper, a unified failure envelope is defined for the VBC using the Hvorslev-type normalisation process. Furthermore, a nonlinear elastoplastic constitutive model was examined to describe the elastoplasticity of VBC in triaxial condition, which led to a good agreement between the experimental and numerical modelling results. • Different aspects of elastoplasticity of an Australian Soft Rock (VBC) were studied. • A series of laboratory tests, including oedometer and triaxial tests, were carried out. • The material stiffness in the elastic domain was found to be stress-independent. • The post-yield behaviour was found to be stress-dependant frictional hardening. • The failure envelope was found to be sensitive to the organic content of the material. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]