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Purpose: The aim of the study was to examine associations between speaking fundamental frequency (fos), vowel formant frequencies (F), listener perceptions of speaker gender, and vocal femininity--masculinity. Method: An exploratory study was undertaken to examine associations between fos, F1-F3, listener perceptions of speaker gender (nominal scale), and vocal femininity-masculinity (visual analog scale). For 379 speakers of Australian English aged 18-60 years, fos mode and F1-F3 (12 monophthongs; total of 36 Fs) were analyzed on a standard reading passage. Seventeen listeners rated speaker gender and vocal femininity--masculinity on randomized audio recordings of these speakers. Results: Model building using principal component analysis suggested the 36 Fs could be succinctly reduced to seven principal components (PCs). Generalized structural equation modeling (with the seven PCs of F and fos as predictors) suggested that only F2 and fos predicted listener perceptions of speaker gender (male, female, unable to decide). However, listener perceptions of vocal femininity--masculinity behaved differently and were predicted by F1, F3, and the contrast between monophthongs at the extremities of the F1 acoustic vowel space, in addition to F2 and fos. Furthermore, listeners' perceptions of speaker gender also influenced ratings of vocal femininity-- masculinity substantially. Conclusion: Adjusted odds ratios highlighted the substantially larger contribution of F to listener perceptions of speaker gender and vocal femininity--masculinity relative to fos than has previously been reported. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives. To determine what types of supply-side change underpinned the recent decline in longer (Level C and D) consultation provision and to evaluate the impact of the May 2010 reforms in realigning Medicare with long-term health policy objectives. Methods. Retrospective analysis of Level C and D consultation provision by general practitioners (GPs) across Australia. Outcome measures were extent (number of consultations per providing GP) and participation (proportion of GPs providing these consultations). Results. The proportion of GPs participating in Level C consultation provision is substantial (96%) and constant; however, extent of provision per GP decreased by 21% between 2006 and 2010. Level D participation decreased from 72% during 2006 to a nadir of 62% in 2009, and extent of provision decreased by 26% between 2006 and 2010. Conclusion. Two distinct types of change underpinned the overall decline in Level C and D consultation provision. GPs appear to be providing Level C consultations less often, but the overwhelming majority still provide these consultations to some extent. The extent of provision of Level D consultations and the proportion of GPs providing them has decreased; an appreciable number of GPs simply stopped providing Level D consultations. Medicare reforms appear ineffective in realigning Medicare with long-term policy objectives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]