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This is a longitudinal study to investigate whether there is a correlation between the methods for completion of homework and the incentive levels with academic achievement. The method adopted in this study is the t-test statistical analysis to assess the relationship between the use of compulsory homework on achievement and the influence of intervening and moderating variables. The findings are as follows -- Cohort 1 which completed homework in the traditional pen and paper style (with a mean of 13.278) performed better than the Cohort 2 which completed homework online They also performed better than Cohort 2 which completed homework online (with a mean of 11.851). Cohort 3 that had no incentive and subsequently no compulsion to do the homework (with a mean of 11.851) performed better than Cohort 2 which completed homework online (with a mean of 9.658).

Recent years have witnessed growing acceptance of gender and sexuality diversity in Australia; yet, its inclusion in the school curriculum remains contentious. Despite evidence to the contrary, there is a commonly held belief that parents consider the inclusion of such topics inappropriate. In the light of this, this paper focuses on an analysis of three qualitative items from an Australian national survey of parents of children attending government-funded schools. Informed by the responses to these questions, we sought to better understand the concept of age-appropriateness present in the discourses deployed by a (minority) number of Australian parents who did not support gender and sexuality diversity-inclusivity in the curriculum. Thematic data analysis identified three key themes used by parents to warrant gender and sexuality diversity curriculum exclusion based on age inappropriateness: namely, inclusion is 'confusing'; children are too 'immature'; and children are too 'easily influenced'.

The purpose of this study was to examine the studies related to augmented reality applications in sports science and to discuss the results based on this. Articles selected for analysis were found through searches journals in the Web of Science database from 1975 to 2018 were examined and searched using the keywords ("physical education" or "physical activity" or "sport$") and ("augmented reality"). As a result of the search, 44 articles were reached, and 11 articles were excluded from the research because they were not related to augmented reality applications or sports science. The publication classification form consists of the titles "Years, Authors Number, Country, Journals, Age, Sample Size, Variables, Sample Method, Research Method, Data Collection Method and Data Analysis Method." There are a limited number of studies where sports and augmented reality technology are used and interacted together. With the spread of the use of augmented reality and similar technologies in the field of sports sciences, it is thought that such fields as health and education will be positively affected.

A paradox concerning age exists in early childhood education (ECE) across many countries today, evident in the literature, curriculum, policy, funding, and provision. This paradox comprises two distinct approaches that call for either a specialised developmental approach to discrete age groups or a generic attitude concerning childhoods with no age distinction at all. This article traces the presence and impact of the paradox of age through an Australian study comprising two components: a review of the literature concerning age; and, a survey undertaken in two states where different treatments of age were evident: NSW and Victoria--with a particular interest in what was happening for three-year-olds. 171 responses were received 102 (NSW) and 69 (Victoria). The review of the literature generated four main themes that when considered in relation to the survey responses revealed the tendency of ECE researchers, policymakers, and educators to situate children within a "discourse of becoming" that focusses attention towards children's maturity and skills, and school readiness. While this discourse has been used productively, its prevalence in this study suggests that many children attending ECE services are likely to experience learning environments that do not always acknowledge the importance of the here and now, or the wealth of experience and knowledge they bring to these environments. This calls attention to the attitudes and assumptions of educators themselves concerning the treatment of younger learners; as well as the constraints and opportunities that policymakers provide for effective provision, and that influence both the nature of and access to ECE.

The effects of school starting age and relative age effects (RAEs) have generated much interest from parents, teachers, policymakers, and educational researchers. Our 10-year longitudinal study is based on a nationally representative (N = 4,983) prospective sample from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children. The primary outcomes are results from the high-stake, Australia-wide National Assessment Program-Literacy and Numeracy tests in Years 3, 5, 7, and 9, controlling for demographic characteristics (gender, socioeconomic status, school type, and childhood cognition measured before the start of kindergarten). We evaluated how direct and mediated RAEs vary over the first 10 years of schooling for these longitudinal data. Results revealed significant RAEs in primary school years for both numeracy and literacy test outcomes. Effects were large in primary school years but declined in secondary school years. Although the direct effects of RAEs declined over time, there continued to be significant indirect effects over the whole 10-year period. RAEs in primary school had enduring effects that were mediated through the effects of earlier achievement. We juxtapose our results with previous RAE research on achievement and a range of other noncognitive outcomes where the RAEs are enduring into adolescence and even adulthood. We position our research within this broader research literature and discuss implications for educational policy, practice, theory, and future research.

This essay proposes a feminist research agenda on the history of women teachers' experiences in the latter stages of their career and life. Drawing on extant histories of white women elementary and secondary teachers in the largely Anglo, western world (centred on the United States, Canada, England, Australia and Ireland), the essay explores the concept of age as a category of analysis, particularly for historians of women, by identifying three ways in which the ageing of women teachers is historically significant: the persistence of cultural stereotypes against older women teachers over time; the historical pattern of older women teachers' political activism; and historical aspects of ageing women teachers' sense of professional and subjective experience of their work. By noting the invisibility of age in the current historiography of women teachers, the essay proposes that historians of education begin to see age as a category of analysis.

As higher education has made the transition from elite to mass enrolments, the student body has become more diverse and online and blended learning have become more common. This study aimed to examine the impacts on attrition of admitting a more diverse student body with the shift towards online and blended learning. A hypothesised path model of attrition was tested with structural equation modelling. The model contained four presage variables related to the changed demographic of the student body and alternative modes of study; attendance mode, admission basis, remoteness and socio-economics status. There were two intervening variables; age and year of study. The two outcome variables were dropout and GPA value. The model was tested against a large sample of data from a student record system of a regional Australian university. The model showed a good fit to the data predicting that the expansion of higher education, along with the increasing use of online and blended learning, will impact on attrition.

The current research examines the effect of two methods of vocabulary training on reading fluency and comprehension of adult English as second language (ESL) tertiary-bound students. The methods used were isolated vocabulary training (bottom-up reading) and vocabulary training in context (top-down reading). The current exploratory and quasi-experimental study examines the effectiveness of these methods in two intact classes using pre- and posttest measures of students' reading fluency and comprehension. The results show that bottom-up training had a negative impact on fluency and comprehension. In contrast, top-down training positively affected fluency but had no impact on comprehension. Further, the results do suggest that fast-paced reading may potentially lead to improved comprehension. These findings have implications for the type of language instruction used in classrooms and, therefore, for teachers of adult ESL learners.

This paper examines the determinants of job-related training and workplace voice. Using data from a unique 2016 cross-national survey of Australian, British, Canadian and American employees, the paper contrasts two classic formulations in the literature; (1) the neoclassical/human capital approach which predicts that individual characteristics (such as age and education) which increase the efficiency of learning, will have the largest impact on the allocation of training (i.e. younger and more educated employees will be afforded training) and (2) the traditional institutional approach which favors the structural characteristics present at the industry and firm level, the nature of the job itself and the strategic choices of firms as the major predictors of job-related training. We find that age -- a key factor in the human capital model -- plays a significant role in the allocation of training but that education (in keeping with recent evidence) does not. In sum the human capital model provides, at best, only a partial explanation for the differences in training observed across individuals. In contrast, variables invoked by the institutional literature (i.e. occupation level; industry; ownership type; and market structure) are highly significant and account for a much greater proportion of the variance in training observed across workers. Other institutional factors such as the presence of a union and a human resource department were strong positive predictors of job-related training. But most important were product-market strategy and employee voice. Respondents working in firms utilizing a 'high road/high quality' product/service strategy and with a workplace consultative committee were significantly more likely to receive training than similar workers employed in observably similar firms. This last finding supports the industrial relations view of voice as an important channel by which training is optimally delivered inside the firm.

School Age Care is a setting that is little researched and the research that has been conducted has not often sought the perspectives of older children. This article describes a participatory and ethnographic research project that sought a deeper insight into older children's experiences of an Australian School Age Care setting, seeking their views about how to successfully program for other children their age. Older children in School Age Care are commonly spoken of as rebellious, bored, disruptive and unsuited to School Age Care. The Foucauldian theories underpinning the research challenged the normative developmental discourses that circulate School Age Care. The research shows that older children have access to these developmental and maturational discourses. The participants actively engaged with language, architecture and resources in the School Age Care setting to actively construct themselves as a more mature, distinct category of child. The findings suggest that School Age Care practitioners should be aware of how developmental discourses are both enacted by children and reinforced through programming design and consider the impacts of segregating routines and practices on children's play and leisure. While this research does not 'solve' the question of older children in School Age Care, it unsettles dominant understandings, therefore inviting practitioners to imagine new programming approaches that might improve School Age Care for older children.

'High functioning autism' is a term often used for individuals with autism spectrum disorder without an intellectual disability. Over time, this term has become synonymous with expectations of greater functional skills and better long-term outcomes, despite contradictory clinical observations. This study investigated the relationship between adaptive behaviour, cognitive estimates (intelligence quotient) and age at diagnosis in autism spectrum disorder. Participants (n = 2225, 1-18 years of age) were notified at diagnosis to a prospective register and grouped by presence (n = 1041) or absence (n = 1184) of intellectual disability. Functional abilities were reported using the Vineland Adaptive Behaviour Scales. Regression models suggested that intelligence quotient was a weak predictor of Vineland Adaptive Behaviour Scales after controlling for sex. Whereas the intellectual disability group's adaptive behaviour estimates were close to reported intelligence quotients, Vineland Adaptive Behaviour Scales scores fell significantly below intelligence quotients for children without intellectual disability. The gap between intelligence quotient and Vineland Adaptive Behaviour Scales scores remained large with increasing age at diagnosis for all children. These data indicate that estimates from intelligence quotient alone are an imprecise proxy for functional abilities when diagnosing autism spectrum disorder, particularly for those without intellectual disability. We argue that 'high functioning autism' is an inaccurate clinical descriptor when based solely on intelligence quotient demarcations and this term should be abandoned in research and clinical practice.

The current methodology of estimating load in the following year at Flinders University has achieved reasonable accuracy in the previous capped funding environment, particularly at the university level, due largely to our university having stable intakes and student profiles. While historically within reasonable limits, variation in estimates at the course level is increasing due to the removal of the capped environment, increased competitiveness across universities, and changing student composition, profiles, and study patterns. This translates to uncertainty in funding and how it is distributed across courses. It is now necessary to predict load in a way that accommodates the changing higher education landscape, with greater accuracy at the course level. This article compares the current method of estimating continuing load in the following year with an alternative method developed by the Planning Services Unit. The current method creates one estimate per course and utilises the previous year's continuation rate unless exogenous information suggests otherwise. The proposed alternative method disaggregates courses according to student academic characteristics that are associated with continuation rates. The method uses a generalised linear statistical model, derived from varying amounts of historic data, to estimate continuing load separately within each course cross-classification. This article will describe the logistics associated with, and the benefits of, applying the new method when predicting continuing load in Funding Group 1 (Commonwealth supported load) in 2013.

This study examined the effect of age-correction on IQ scores among preterm school-aged children. Data from the Flinders Medical Centre Neonatal Unit Follow-up Program for 81 children aged five years and assessed with the WPPSI-III, and 177 children aged eight years and assessed with the WISC-IV, were analysed. Corrected IQ scores were significantly higher than not-corrected IQ scores (Full Scale IQ and all indices) for both the WPPSI-III and WISC-IV. The use of age-corrected IQ scores has the potential to exclude some children from support services. (Contains 4 tables and 2 figures.)

The deleterious effects of maternal depression on child emotional and behavioral development are well documented, yet many children exposed to maternal depression experience positive outcomes. The aim of this study was to identify psychosocial factors associated with the emotional-behavioral resilience of four-year-old children of first-time mothers experiencing depressive symptoms across the early childhood period. Data were from 1085 mother-child dyads in the Maternal Health Study collected prospectively at five time-points from pregnancy to child age four. Longitudinal trajectories of maternal depressive symptoms were identified, and children were regarded as resilient or competent if they scored in the normal range on the Total Difficulties subscale of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. We found that 22% of women had a pattern of moderate to high depressive symptoms, and within this group 78% of their children were identified as resilient. Maternal tertiary education and maternal involvement in home learning activities were unique predictors of children's resilience. Higher maternal age at the time of pregnancy and financial security were factors associated with positive outcomes for all children. The findings highlight the importance of policy and intervention efforts to strengthen the quality of maternal-child interactions and the home learning environment to promote the emotional and behavioral functioning of children whose mothers are experiencing mental health difficulties in the early years of parenting.

Binge drinking is associated with deleterious health, social and economic outcomes. This study explored the lay understanding of the causes of binge drinking in members of the general public in the United Kingdom and Australia. Participants in the United Kingdom (N = 133) and Australia (N = 102) completed a network diagram exercise requiring them to draw causal paths and provide path strength ratings between 12 candidate factors (24-h opening, age, alcohol advertizing, alcohol availability, boredom, drinking culture, income, low cost, parental influence, peer pressure, stress and supermarket discounts) and binge drinking. Results indicated good consistency in paths across samples, although differences in frequency and strength ratings for some paths were found. Drinking culture, peer pressure and low alcohol cost were perceived as direct causes of binge drinking in both samples. Low alcohol cost and drinking culture were most frequently viewed as direct causes of binge drinking in UK and Australian participants, respectively. Supermarket discounts and low cost of alcohol were most frequently viewed as indirect causes of binge drinking by UK and Australian samples. Findings reflect general awareness and prominence of factors affecting binge drinking in both national groups. Findings may inform the development of campaigns to promote public support policies to curb binge drinking.

Background: Both parent-report and clinician-administered autism spectrum disorder (ASD) screening instruments are important to accurately inform ASD risk ascertainment. The aim of this study was to adapt a clinician-administered ASD screening instrument, the Autistic Behavioural Indicators Instrument (ABII), as a parent questionnaire equivalent (ABII-PQ). Method: The modification of ABII items into parent questions is described. The ABII-PQ was trialled in a sample of parents of children, aged between 12 months and 6 years, with an ASD (n = 65, M child age = 4.03 years) or typical development (n = 37, M child age = 2.09 years). Results: Internal consistency was high, a = 0.92. Receiver operator curves analysis identified the optimal ABII-PQ cut-off score, which yielded high sensitivity (0.97) and specificity (0.95). Classification accuracy was high for children across the autism spectrum (autistic disorder: n = 35, 100%; Asperger syndrome: n = 14, 93%; pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified: n = 14, 93%). Conclusion: The ABII-PQ shows promise as a parent questionnaire version of the ABII.

This article reports on an ongoing study that investigates the development of expertise in rugby league and Australian football by Indigenous Australians as a socially and culturally situated process of learning. Focused on the sampling phase of the Development Model of Participation in Sport (6-12 years of age), it combines narrative inquiry and grounded theory methodologies to identify the important role that participation in a range of different sports and in informal games plays in the participants' development of expertise, as a process of socialisation.

Background: Many people with intellectual disability have limited sexual knowledge. Several assessment tools have been developed to assess the sexual knowledge of people with intellectual disability. This paper examines how clinicians' are using these tools. Method: This research uses a constructivist grounded theory approach. Semistructured qualitative interviews were conducted with clinicians who use sexual knowledge assessment tools. Findings and Discussion: Assessment of sexual knowledge is not routine in disability service provision. Sexual knowledge is typically only assessed when there has been an incident of problematic sexualised behaviour. This reactive approach perpetuates a pathological sexual health discourse. Conclusions: Clinicians using assessment tools said that they need the tools to support work they do in relation to sexual health of people with intellectual disability. However, they also reported that the tools have gaps and are not fully meeting their needs or the needs of people with intellectual disability.

In the context of the trend toward delayed parenthood, this study examines whether older maternal age is associated with greater psychological maturity and whether greater psychological maturity provides any adaptive benefit during the transition to motherhood. A sample of 240 predominantly English-speaking Australian women in a metropolitan area expecting their 1st baby (mean age = 32.81 years; 41% conceived after fertility treatment) completed measures of psychological maturity (hardiness, ego development, and ego resiliency) and pregnancy adaptation (maternal fetal attachment and formation of a maternal identity) in the 3rd trimester of pregnancy and a measure of postnatal adjustment at 4-6 months postpartum. Structural equation modeling showed age was positively associated with a latent construct of psychological maturity, and psychological maturity was associated with more optimal adaptation in pregnancy and early motherhood. Both psychological maturity and pregnancy adaptation predicted positive postnatal adjustment. Age was indirectly related to adaptation through its relationship with psychological maturity. The relationships in the model applied regardless of mode of conception (fertility treatment or spontaneous). Potentially confounding contextual factors associated with older age at motherhood, higher education, and maternal and child health were included in the model. These results suggest that psychological maturity is a benefit of motherhood at older ages.

Background: Seclusion is a restrictive intervention that results in some form of containment and social isolation of a person from others. Little is known about the relationships between individual and organisation factors and the use of seclusion in disability services. Method: The reported use of seclusion in disability services in Victoria, Australia, was examined over a 3-year period, with a focus on the characteristics of those who were secluded (n = 146) and the characteristics of organisations that reported seclusion compared to others who were reported to be restrained but not secluded (n = 2,482). Results: Results from a logistic regression showed that the individual factors of age, the presence of autism and/or a psychiatric disorder put people at risk of being secluded. In terms of organisational factors, receiving accommodation services in institutions or in the community and the location of the organisation were risk factors. Conclusions: The findings are consistent with previous research but add to this literature by showing that certain organisational characteristics are also risk factors for seclusion. Understanding these factors is important in order to help disability support staff find other more ethical and appropriate alternatives to seclusion.

When the author was adviser to the Australian Minister for Education for writing the national Safe Schools Framework (2003), meetings were held with early-childhood care and education administrators from all state, Catholic and independent sectors. Their unexpected message was that educators were facing new problems, those of child sexual abuse in early-childhood settings including pupils forcing younger children to provide oral sex. In January 2013, the South Australian Minister for Education lost her position following well-publicised parental anger that the Education Department had concealed the sexual abuse of children in early-childhood centres and schools. Parental outrage led to a Royal Commission and "Report of Independent Education Inquiry" (2013) conducted by former Justice Bruce Debelle QC. Public dissatisfaction with some aspects of the Commission led further to a Parliamentary Select Committee Inquiry (February 2014) "Matters Relating to the Independent Education Inquiry."

The present study investigated the developmental interrelationships between play, gesture use and spoken language development in children aged 18-31 months. The children completed two tasks: (i) a structured measure of pretend (or "symbolic") play and (ii) a measure of vocabulary knowledge in which children have been shown to gesture. Additionally, their productive spoken language knowledge was measured via parental report. The results indicated that symbolic play is positively associated with children's gesture use, which in turn is positively associated with spoken language knowledge over and above the influence of age. The tripartite relationship between gesture, play and language development is discussed with reference to current developmental theory.

In situations of language endangerment, the ability to understand a language tends to persevere longer than the ability to speak it. As a result, the possibility of language revival remains high even when few speakers remain. Nonetheless, this potential requires that those with high levels of comprehension received sufficient input as children for the activation of speech to occur in later life. In many areas of Australia, input to children of traditional Aboriginal languages is rarely monolingual, but rather often mixed with a contact variety of English. Thus, it is not clear whether children receive enough input to later become active speakers of the traditional languages. This paper reports on a study which tested the relationship between language comprehension and child language input. A vocabulary test of 40 items was administered to 52 Gurindji participants in five age groups. Participants were asked to listen to a Gurindji word and choose a corresponding picture. The test items were graded as high, medium or low frequency on the basis of their use in a corpus of Gurindji child-input speech. We found that age and frequency of use in child-directed speech significantly altered the chance of a correct response. (Contains 6 tables, 1 figure, and 5 notes.)

As work and employment transitions become more frequent and difficult, the demand for formal career guidance increases. Women are likely to experience structural labour market disadvantage and may benefit from formal support that is sympathetic to their particular needs. Yet the traditional psychological paradigms that dominate career guidance practice have assumed homogeneity. To contribute both to broader debates about careers services for adults and the development of more relevant theoretical frameworks for career practice for women, results are presented from an international, comparative qualitative investigation of the career trajectories of older women (aged 45 to 65) in Australia, England and South Africa. These results confirm a need for career guidance that is nuanced and differentiated for women.

Relational aggression is a subtle form of aggressive behaviour that uses dyadic relationships and manipulation as a vehicle of harm. Little is known about relational aggression in preschool-age children in cultural contexts outside the United States. This study examined relationally aggressive behaviours and prosocial behaviours in Australian preschoolers. The sample consisted of 60 children aged from three to five years (35 boys, 25 girls). Teachers rated children's social behaviour in terms of relational aggression and prosocial behaviour. Results indicated that teachers report significantly more relational aggression in the oldest age group of children (aged greater than 4.5 years). Relational aggression was related to lower scores of prosocial behaviour (p less than 0.05). No significant differences were found between boys' and girls' engagement in relational aggression and prosocial behaviours. Results are discussed in terms of the importance of recognising the prevalence of these aggressive behaviours in Australian preschool-age children and the need for immediate intervention. (Contains 1 table.)

In the Australian education context, there are typically two cohorts of language learners at the secondary school level, those who commence their study of the target language early in their primary schooling (early starters), and those who commence their study later, at the beginning of secondary school (late starters). The two groups may have undertaken their language study under quite different program conditions, in particular in relation to "time-on-task". There is little empirical evidence about the nature of student achievement in languages at the end of primary and in junior secondary and its relationship to time-on-task. This paper compares the achievements of a sample of early and late start students of Indonesian in Australia using score data gathered from common measures of achievement. In addition, a small sample of student written responses are analysed in order to highlight issues related to eliciting and describing student achievement that may not be evident from the quantitative data alone. The findings of the study reveal the nature of achievement by early and late starters of Indonesian in the SAALE study, as well as the complexity of investigating a single variable such as time-on-task in relation to student achievement. The paper concludes by recommending that assessment of student achievement in language learning take into consideration methodologies that may capture more holistically a constellation of variables that impact on students' language learning. (Contains 8 tables and 1 endnote.)

The inclusion of an infant/toddler placement in a "pathways" early childhood teaching degree, where students already have qualifications and experience in working with young children, can be problematic. This pilot study investigated student teachers' views on their infant/toddler (birth-to-two-years) placement. Sixty-six students completing their early childhood education degree at an Australian university responded to a survey seeking their perspectives on the effectiveness of the placement in developing teacher confidence, knowledge and skills, and the quality of the supervision they received. The participants had entered their degree with a two-year Diploma of Children's Services. Responses indicated significant dissatisfaction with the quality of supervision, the absence of teacher-mentors, and the lack of opportunities to practise new approaches. Participants commented that they "already knew" how to work with this age group, and that they aspired to work with older children. The results align with other findings on factors associated with positive placements, and raise questions about the effectiveness of the infant/toddler placement in its current form.

Education about sexuality is one method of reducing common negative stereotypes about this aspect of the life of older people. Knowledge and attitudes toward sexuality are therefore particularly important in those who educate healthcare professionals. We surveyed schools of medicine, nursing, occupational therapy, physiotherapy, psychology, and social work in Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa using White's Aging Sexuality Knowledge and Attitudes Scale. A total of 364 usable surveys were returned, revealing no main effects for differences in generally above-average levels of knowledge and attitudes across professions and the three countries. Some country-by-profession interactions were found for both knowledge and attitudes. Age was found to be the sole demographic factor able to predict both attitude toward and knowledge of sexuality. Findings suggest that levels of knowledge about sexuality and attitudes toward it have improved over earlier studies in North America. (Contains 3 tables.)

Children's performance on face identification tests improves dramatically between age 4 and adolescence, yet the source of this improvement is controversial. We used face identity aftereffects to examine whether changes in the organization of face-space during childhood could be a source of this improvement. Specifically we tested whether 7- to 9-year-old children, like adults, show patterns of aftereffects predicted by coding facial identity relative to a norm or the patterns predicted by exemplar-based coding. Consistent with use of norm-based coding children's aftereffects were larger (a) for opposite than non-opposite adapt-test pairs equated for perceptual similarity, and (b) for adaptors far from the average than for adaptors closer to the average. In addition, face identity aftereffects were present by age 5, suggesting adult-like face-space properties by 5, though we did not conduct specific tests to distinguish norm-based from exemplar-based coding in this age group. We conclude that children's poor face identification skills cannot be attributed to a failure to use norm-based coding. (Contains 3 footnotes, 2 tables, and 13 figures.)

Playing-related musculoskeletal problems (PRMP) are common in adult musicians. The limited available evidence suggests PRMP are common in children and adolescents and that risk factors may be similar. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of PRMP in children and adolescents and their associations with female gender, age and instrument exposure. The study surveyed 731 children learning musical instruments (460 females) ranging in age from 7-17 years. Lifetime symptoms, monthly symptoms and monthly disorders (the inability to play an instrument as usual) were examined. Logistic regression evaluated the independent association of these potential risk factors with PRMP prevalences. A total of 67% students reported PRM symptoms at some point, 56% reported PRM symptoms within the last month and 30% reported an inability to play as usual within the last month. Female gender was significantly associated with PRMP (OR 1.38-1.56, p = 0.004-0.046), as was age (OR 1.19-0.23, p less than 0.001). After adjustment for gender and age, type of instrument (upper and lower strings, woodwind and brass) were significantly associated with all PRMP (p less than 0.005) and playing three instruments was protective against monthly symptoms (OR 0.43, p = 0.05). The study concludes that the high prevalence and disabling impact of playing-related musculoskeletal problems is clearly an important issue for child and adolescent health with gender, age and instrument exposure important factors for risk management. (Contains 4 tables and 2 figures.)

Lexicographers, teachers and interpreters of New Zealand Sign Language (NZSL) are challenged by the degree of lexical variation that exists in this young language. For instance, most numerals between one and twenty have two or more variants in common use (McKee, McKee, and Major 2008), a situation that contrasts with most established spoken languages. This article reports on an analysis of the effects of signers' age, region, gender, and ethnicity on their use of variants for eighty lexical items in NZSL. The study formed part of the Sociolinguistic Variation in NZSL project, which investigated features of phonology (Schembri et al. 2009), syntax (McKee et al., in review), and lexicon. The project, including this substudy, was modeled on quantitative investigations of sociolinguistic variation in American Sign Language (ASL) (Lucas, Bayley, and Valli 2001) and in Australian Sign Language (Auslan) (Schembri and Johnston 2006, 2007; Schembri, Johnston, and Goswell 2006). The article is organized as follows: (1) a review of lexical variation in signed languages; (2) historical context of the NZSL community; (3) research method; (4) findings and discussion; and (5) conclusions and limitations of the study. (Contains 7 notes, 11 tables, and 1 figure.)

This study examined the relationship between callous-unemotional (CU) traits and parenting practices over time in a mixed-sex community cohort (N = 1,008; 52.6% boys), aged 3 to 10 years (M = 6.5, SD = 1.3). Measures of CU traits, externalizing psychopathology, parenting practices, and socioeconomic risk factors were collected at baseline, and parenting practices and CU traits were reassessed at 12-month follow-up. CU traits uniquely accounted for change in three domains of parenting (inconsistent discipline, punishment, and parental involvement). Likewise, multiple domains of parenting (positive parenting, parental involvement, and poor monitoring/supervision) uniquely predicted change in CU traits. These seemingly bidirectional dynamics between CU traits and parenting were found to be largely moderated by child age and sex. Results partially replicate previous findings regarding the association between quality of parenting and prospective change in CU traits, and provide initial evidence that CU traits disrupt parenting practices over time. (Contains 1 figure, 2 tables, and 1 footnote.)

This paper reports findings from the first national Australian study of the predictive validity of the Special Tertiary Admissions Test (STAT). Background on tertiary admissions procedures in Australia is presented, followed by information on STAT and the research methods. The results affirm that STAT, through the provision of baseline and objective data, offers a valid and efficient means for ensuring that people who are capable of success at university are able to gain admission. They affirm the importance of taking an evidence-based disciplinary perspective to university admissions. Implications for the development and use of the assessment are considered. (Contains 5 tables.)

In this study, the authors compared the results of a coping measure completed by 98 seventh through ninth grade students who were assessed as having learning disabilities with published means from the general Australian student population. The "Adolescent Coping Scale" was the measure used. The results suggested higher use by students aged 12 to 13 years who had learning disabilities of an overall nonproductive coping style and in particular of the nonproductive strategies of ignoring the problem and not coping. Although there was no difference in overall productive or nonproductive coping style for 14- to 15-year-olds, the students in this age group who had learning disabilities reported higher use of the strategies of not coping and ignoring the problem. These findings are discussed in relation to a need for interventions that give students who have learning disabilities strategies that address the risk of a passive coping style. (Contains 3 tables.)

In the current study, we tested whether school connectedness mediates more distal deficits in social skills in influencing depressive symptoms in a sample of 127 sixth- and seventh-grade students. Results demonstrated that school connectedness and social skills accounted for 44% and 26% of variance in depressive symptoms respectively and 49% in a combined model. Although the full mediation model hypothesis was not supported, follow-up analyses revealed that school connectedness partially mediated the link between social skills and preadolescent depressive symptoms. Thus, school connectedness appears to play as strong a role in depressive symptoms in this younger preadolescent age group. (Contains 2 tables.)

This article reports on the results of a survey distributed in April 2007 to government special education schools and settings throughout Australia. The survey collected information about the age and special education qualifications of teaching staff. It followed a similar survey that was distributed in May 2006 to Victorian special schools that found that 44.9% of teachers and principals were aged 50 years or more, and 68.9% had a special education qualification. In the current survey, the percentage of principals and teachers aged 50 years or more in the responding schools ranged from 37.5% in New South Wales to 51.0% in the Australian Capital Territory. The percentage of special education qualified staff varied from 53.1% in the Australian Capital Territory to 86.6% in Western Australia. These results are examined in further detail and possible implications discussed.

This study examines whether self-concept scores of deaf students vary according to age at diagnosis of deafness, the degree of deafness and the number of visits students receive from a teacher of the deaf. Thirty-seven deaf students between the ages of 12 and 18 attending inclusive educational settings in Western Australia participated in the study. The Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale, Second Edition (Piers-Harris 2) was used as a measure of self-concept. Overall, group mean self-concept scores on the Piers-Harris 2 were within the average range, with some differences between groups in relation to these. There were no significant main effects of age at diagnosis of deafness or the degree of deafness on Piers-Harris 2 domain scale and total self-concept scores. There was also no significant main effect of the number of visits by a teacher of the deaf on the Piers-Harris 2 total self-concept score. However, a significant main effect of the number of visits from a teacher of the deaf found on Piers-Harris 2 domain-scale scores was attributable to differences between the groups on the Physical Attributes and Happiness and Satisfaction scales. Specifically, students receiving one visit per week scored higher on these self-concept scales than students who received two or more visits per week. Implications and limitations of the study are discussed. (Contains 3 tables and 3 figures.)

The main aim of the Bridging the Gap project was to encourage Indigenous families to use a home book-reading program to minimise the disadvantage often experienced by their children when learning to read. The project was implemented in Western Sydney by Aboriginal Education Assistants (AEAs) from the Indigenous Catholic Education Unit within the Catholic Schools Office, Parramatta Diocese, NSW, with 22 children and their families in Terms 2 and 3 of the school year. The program used shared-book reading to help the children become actively involved in the reading process. At post-test, the children's mean reading age was higher than their mean chronological age, and there were increases in listening comprehension, phonemic awareness and receptive language. The project had a positive impact on the children's self-esteem, interest in books, experiences with books at home, and home-school links. The project also had a positive impact on the role of the AEAs within the Indigenous Education Unit and their support of the literacy needs of Indigenous children in the first year at school. (Contains 2 tables.)

In the early childhood education and care (ECEC) sector there has been a plethora of literature about practice with children in the birth to five age group (Arthur, Beecher, Dockett, Farmer, Richards, 1995; Dockett & Fleer, 1999; Fleer, 2003, 2005; Hutchins & Sims, 1999; Grieshaber & Cannella, 2001; Press & Hayes, 2000; Stonehouse, 1988). There is also literature about how particular types of ECEC practice assists in promoting intellectual competence, agency and resilience in these young children. However, current research about how to scaffold and value meta-linguistic and metacognitive competence and agency in the birth to three age group appears to be scant (Page, 2005). This paper uses data from interviews and videotaped observations of young children and their families to begin to unpack how learning experiences for birth to three-year-olds happen within particular social contexts. An interpretive and theoretical bricolage (Denzin & Lincoln, 2003; Levi-Strauss, 1966) of theory and literature is used to interrogate this data, acting as a means of informing epistemological understanding about how practice within particular social contexts constrains or enables children as competent and capable learners. The authors argue that a tendency to underestimate the meta-cognitive and meta-linguistic ability of infants and toddlers delimits understanding of what is possible for them within play and learning contexts. Finally, a model of practice is developed that focuses on appreciating and enhancing such abilities in this age group. (Contains 1 figure.)

Background: Australia's national ageing policy recognises that people ageing with intellectual disability (ID) require particular attention, yet there is no policy framework concerning this population. This study describes the distribution and characteristics of people with ID in residential aged care in Victoria, provides insights into the pathways they take into aged care, and gives some indications of how facilities adapt to their needs. Method: A postal survey was sent to 826 residential aged care facilities in Victoria, seeking information from directors about their residents with ID. Facilities that responded were fairly representative of all facilities in Victoria. Findings: Residents with ID were younger, had entered at an earlier age and remained longer than other residents. Their reported dependency profile was similar to the general aged care population, although the incidence of dementia was lower. Primary areas of concern identified by providers were: inability to fit into the resident community, lack of participation in activities and lack of meaningful relationships. Conclusion: This study provides a first glimpse into how older people with ID find their way into aged care and how others view their experiences once there. It suggests that further investigation is required into the accuracy of assessment undertaken prior to entry to more clearly understand whether residents with ID are inappropriately placed in residential aged as a result of a shortage of disability accommodation and inadequate resources to support aging in place for those in such accommodation.

Many of the explanations for girls' disinterest in physics focus on the role of the educational system in creating this situation. Here, we use evidence from free-choice science learning settings to study if this lack of interest is also expressed in non-school settings. Three sets of self-generated questions raised by children, adolescents and adults in the fields of biology and physics were used. The outcomes of this analysis show that the polar pattern previously described in school science settings, in which physics proves significantly less interesting to girls than to boys, while biology is of greater interest to girls than to boys, also appears in free-choice science learning settings. While boys develop an interest in physics with age, girls do not develop such an interest to the same degree. Thus, the initial gap in interest is probably not based on school-related causes, but its widening in later years probably is. A difference was also found between the genders in the type of information requested and in the motivation for raising the questions. Using topics that appeal to girls' interest as the context of science learning could prove beneficial in the process of mainstreaming science education. These topics can be identified using girls' spontaneous questions. (Contains 2 tables, 2 figures and 4 notes.)

Background: The potential effects on other children when there is a child with intellectual disability (ID) in the family are being increasingly recognized. This study describes the impact of having a sibling with Down syndrome or Rett syndrome using a questionnaire completed by parents. Methods: The parents of 186 Western Australian children with Down syndrome and 141 Australian girls and women with Rett syndrome participated in the study. Patterns of reporting disadvantages and/or benefits were compared across a number of child and family variables (age, functional ability and birth order of the affected child, number of siblings and number of parents in the family home) and by socio-economic status as measured by the index of relative socio-economic disadvantage and by area of residence. Parents' responses to open-ended questions about the benefits and/or disadvantages for siblings of their child were analysed for themes. Results: The majority of parents in the Rett syndrome and Down syndrome groups reported both disadvantages and benefits for siblings. In the Rett syndrome group, families from outer regional areas were the least likely to mention disadvantages and those with a smaller family more likely to note disadvantages. In both groups, more socio-economically advantaged families were more likely to report disadvantages. In the Down syndrome group, benefits were also more commonly reported by parents who were socio-economically advantaged, and by larger and two-parent families. Major disadvantages for siblings centred around parental and personal time constraints, relationships and socializing, restrictions, parental emotion and burden of helping. Major benefits were related to personality characteristics. Conclusion: Parents identified both benefits and disadvantages to the siblings of their child with either Rett syndrome or Down syndrome. It is important that these findings are incorporated into any discussion around the impact on the family of a child diagnosed with an ID. (Contains 2 figures and 5 tables.)

Objective: The links between child maltreatment and juvenile offending are well established. However, the majority of maltreated children do not offend. The research presented in this paper examines the impact that timing and chronicity of child maltreatment have on juvenile offending. Methods: Administrative data were obtained on all children who were born in Queensland, Australia in 1983 or 1984 and had contact with child protective services for at least one child protection matter (N = 5,849). For these children information was obtained on all child protection and juvenile justice contacts until the age of 17. These data were analyzed using the Semi-Parametric Group-Based trajectory analyses [Nagin, D., & Land, L. (1993). "Age, criminal careers, and population heterogeneity: Specification and estimation of a nonparametric mixed Poisson model." "Criminology," 31, 327-362]. Results: Six distinctive maltreatment trajectory groups were identified, distinguished by the frequency of victimization, the age of onset and the duration of the maltreatment. Child maltreatment peaked around the transition from preschool to primary school and the transition from primary school to secondary school. Furthermore, children whose maltreatment trajectory started or extended into adolescence were more likely to offend as juveniles than children whose maltreatment occurred prior to, but not during, adolescence. Conclusions: Trajectory analysis provides a useful analytical tool for understanding heterogeneous nature of child maltreatment and the impact of maltreatment on subsequent juvenile offending.

Objectives: To describe the incidence and clinical features of children presenting to Australian child health specialists with conversion disorder. Method: Active, national surveillance of conversion disorder in children younger than 16 years of age during 2002 and 2003. Results: A total of 194 children were reported on. The average age was 11.8 years; 23% were younger than 10 years of age. Presentations were complex, with 55% presenting with multiple conversion symptoms. The most common presentations were disturbance of voluntary motor function (64%), sensory symptoms (24%), pseudoseizure (23%), and respiratory problems (14%). Hospital admission was required for 70%, with an average stay of 10.2 days. Antecedent stressors were also reported in 62% and a history of mental health concerns in 42%, with 14% of children taking psychotropic medications for comorbid anxiety or depression. The incidence of conversion disorder in Australian specialist child health practice is estimated to be between 2.3 and 4.2/100,000. Conclusions: Conversion disorder is associated with a significant burden for the child, family, and the health system. This study emphasizes the comorbidity with anxiety, depression, and symptoms of pain and fatigue. It also highlights the potential impact of "commonplace" stressors such as family conflict and children's loss of attachment figures. (Contains 3 figures.)

This article presents the results from a preliminary investigation into the use of fingerspelling in Australian Sign Language (Auslan), drawing on data collected as part of the Sociolinguistic Variation in Australian Sign Language project (Schembri and Johnston 2004; Schembri, Johnston, and Goswell in press). This major project is a replication in the Australian deaf community of quantitative investigations into variation in American Sign Language (ASL) conducted by Lucas, Bayley, and Valli (2001). In this specific study, we consider variation in the use of the two-handed manual alphabet in Auslan, based on an analysis of 2,667 utterances collected from 205 deaf signers of Auslan in five sites across Australia (i.e., Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, and Adelaide). The results indicate that the variation in the frequency of fingerspelling use most strongly correlates with signers' age, but may also vary according to region, as has also been reported for British Sign Language (BSL) (Sutton-Spence, Woll, and Allsop 1990). (Contains 5 tables, 4 figures and 2 notes.)

The German and Australian "longitudinal" surveys analysed here are the first national representative surveys to show that (1) people who continuously own a pet are the healthiest group and (2) people who cease to have a pet or never had one are less healthy. Most previous studies which have claimed that pets confer health benefits were "cross-sectional." So they were open to the objection that owners may have been healthier in the first place, rather than becoming healthier due to owning a pet. In both countries the data show that pet owners make about 15% fewer annual doctor visits than non-owners. The relationship remains statistically significant after controlling for gender, age, marital status, income and other variables associated with health. The German data come from the German Socio-Economic Panel in which respondents have been interviewed every year since 1984 (N = 9723). Australian data come from the Australian National Social Science Survey 2001 (N = 1246).