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Context: Understanding what characteristics influence retreat-site selection by fauna is critical for both habitat management and species conservation. Despite the documented ecological values of surface rocks, there is limited knowledge of the attributes of surface rock that contribute to their use in agricultural landscapes or during winter months when reptiles are brumating, activity patterns are reduced, and sheltering individuals are most vulnerable to disturbance. Objectives: We surveyed reptiles sheltering beneath surface rocks in grazing farms in south-eastern Australia to address two questions: (i) What landscape factors influence the occurrence of reptiles over austral winter? (ii) What physical and thermal factors influence retreat-site selection? Methods: We surveyed 14 sites, with three plots per site, stratified across a gradient of canopy cover. We measured landscape attributes of surveyed sites and thermal and physical characteristics of individual surface rocks to quantify relationships between the occurrence of reptiles in the landscape and the properties of retreats selected. Results: We found that relatively small patches of surface rock can support high reptile numbers, with density estimates up to of 208 individuals per hectare. Reptile abundance was positively associated with increased elevation and limited canopy cover. Reptiles selected smaller rocks with high surface area to volume ratio, were minimally embedded in the soil, and rocks supporting few invertebrates. Conclusions: Conserving cryptozoic reptiles in agricultural landscapes can be enhanced through the appropriate management and retention of surface rock. We discuss implications for reptile conservation and surface rock management in agricultural landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Artificial water bodies in agricultural landscapes (hereafter 'farm dams') are established primarily to support livestock and crop production but also provide habitats for a wide range of native species. Managing water quality in farm dams is essential to animal production and biodiversity. Farm dam enhancement, which includes restricting direct access of stock to dams, can improve water quality in farm dams, by reducing soil erosion and direct faecal contamination, as well as reducing the trampling, grazing, and browsing of vegetation in the immediate catchment. We tested farm dam enhancement as a tool to improve and maintain water quality in 109 farm dams across 34 farms over three years in the sheep-wheat belt of southeast Australia. Using Bayesian Linear Mixed Models, we found that farm dam enhancement significantly reduced levels of phosphorus, nitrogen, turbidity, thermotolerant coliforms, Escherichia coli , and pH. Furthermore, our study revealed links between dam enhancement, increases in vegetation cover, and improved water quality. Our results show that restoration efforts in the surrounds of dams can have positive results on water quality. They highlight the importance of restoration in agricultural landscapes to both agricultural production and biodiversity. • Managing water quality in farms dams is essential to production and biodiversity. • Dams can be enhanced by restoring vegetation and reducing direct stock access. • Dam enhancement significantly reduced levels of phosphorus and nitrogen. • It also reduced turbidity, thermotolerant coliforms, and Escherichia coli. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Wildlife management on a landscape scale is often complex, particularly where different land use practices occur in the same region. This is particularly so for the management of overabundant grazing species (both domestic and native) in a modified landscape, where anthropogenic activities and climatic drivers can influence their distribution and abundance beyond sustainable levels. In Australia's arid rangelands, macropods benefit from pastoral activities including improved pastures, artificial watering points and the removal of apex predators. This paper addresses some of the challenges associated with managing Red Kangaroo (Osphranter rufus) in a conservation context on the privately managed Boolcoomatta Station conservation reserve in the South Australian arid rangelands. We reflect on the history of the region and how anthropogenic activities, associated with an unpredictable climate, have made macropod management so complex. Ecological monitoring at Boolcoomatta Station suggests that, along with the influence of rainfall, grazing by overabundant Red Kangaroo had a negative impact on vegetation and resident avifauna of chenopod plains. Fenced exclosures further demonstrate the grazing impact of Red Kangaroo, with perennial grasses found only where grazing was excluded. The closure of waterpoints (dams) failed to reduce Red Kangaroo impacts on the reserve, despite some evidence that persistence of Red Kangaroo near fenced dams may be reduced in the long term. Results of monitoring and management outcomes at Boolcoomatta highlight the need for an improved framework to manage Red Kangaroo. This should include consideration of improved regional stock management practices in the face of climate change; improving our understanding of the role of apex predators in agricultural landscapes; developing and setting grazing impact thresholds to instigate macropod management; improving and standardizing monitoring methods for assessing impacts; and lastly, consideration of the mental health and social well‐being of land managers in these areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agriculture provides food, fibre and other resources for people throughout the world, but clearing of native vegetation for agriculture has led to profound losses of biodiversity and changes to ecosystem function. There is growing recognition of the need to retain and restore (semi)natural vegetation in farmland for biodiversity conservation. However, managing such vegetation is complicated by trade-offs between different objectives, and knowledge to guide management is dispersed across multiple fields. We integrate knowledge on the benefits and disbenefits of (semi)natural vegetation on farms for achieving six objectives, including biodiversity, farm production, carbon stocks, soil health, local water cycle, and amenity/human wellbeing. Drawing on scientific literature from temperate southern Australia as a case study region, we develop a conceptual model of the relationships between these objectives and seven common types of native and restored vegetation on farms. From 224 peer-reviewed empirical studies, we identified 19 'causal pathways' by which (semi)natural vegetation provides benefits or disbenefits for the identified objectives. More pathways result in benefits than disbenefits , and generally there is greater support for the benefits provided by native than restored vegetation. Nonetheless, farm-level restoration (revegetation) contributes towards reversing the negative consequences of vegetation loss but this process takes time. Various 'moderating factors' serve to alter the outcome of most pathways. For example, restoration age affects the benefits that revegetation provides for biodiversity, carbon stores, soil health and water cycling. Many moderating factors are related to management practices (e.g. stock grazing, use of fertilisers), highlighting opportunities to enhance the benefits of (semi)natural vegetation in farmland. Relatively little is known about the value of (semi)natural vegetation for amenity/human wellbeing, or the outcomes resulting from natural regeneration. The conceptual model and causal pathways identified here contribute towards a more comprehensive understanding of the diverse benefits of (semi)natural vegetation on farms, which is essential for effective management and the sustainability of agricultural landscapes worldwide. [Display omitted] • Maintaining native vegetation on farms is crucial and involves trade-offs; knowledge to guide management spans disciplines • We synthesize knowledge of the outcomes of vegetation on farms for six objectives (e.g. biodiversity, production, carbon) • Vegetation provides benefits and disbenefits for objectives via many causal pathways; interactions alter most outcomes • Vegetation benefits all objectives, native vegetation especially: disbenefits are fewer and may be offset by benefits • An integrated understanding of the diverse co-benefits of vegetation on farms underpins sustainable agriculture [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Australia's water management futures are again under discussion as drought impacts and bushfires hit communities. Water and ecological system limits are being reached resulting in fish kills and dwindling water levels in storages. Awareness is also rising around the inequities in current water governance regimes for First Peoples across the Australian continent and beyond. Here we provide a brief overview and research on: the ingenuity of Indigenous waterscape and landscape knowledge and practices to care for country and community, including the development of agricultural systems and sophisticated fish and eel trapping systems that are thousands of years old; the devastating impacts of colonisation on First Peoples, their country and ability to maintain some cultural practices; and the ongoing contestation over water governance, right from Federation, including the eight waves of water reforms in the Murray-Darling Basin. Current challenges and needs for reform are also presented including: hydrological scientific uncertainties, such as around return flows and their adjustment due to irrigation infrastructure efficiency increases, and new design methodologies, such as for flood estimation inputs to hydraulic models; adjusting current governance regimes of sustainable diversion limits and water markets to provide alternative value to Australia, beyond economic value drivers, that better respond to the benefit of all basin communities in the face of ongoing extreme climate variability and climate change; and determining positive ways forward for truly valuing and allowing First Peoples' knowledge, practices, culture and law to provide a basis for developing the next waves of Australia's water management reform journey. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Landsat water indices (WIs) assessed growth in time of small water storages (SMS) • WIs' analyses defined construction year of > 700,000 SMS in the Murray-Darling Basin. • SMS volume grew more than twofold since the 1990 s to 2,629.5 million cubic metres. • Growth accelerated during the 'Millennium Drought' (2001–2009) at ∼ 2.5% per annum. • Findings can be used to improve hydrologic modelling of the catchment impacts of SMS. Water demand for agricultural activities has caused a growth in small on-farm storages (i.e., ≥ 0.1 ha to ≤ 10 ha) in many areas worldwide, thereby increasing the capture of landscape runoff which otherwise would enter the catchment drainage system. The cumulative effects of these on-farm storages (colloquially known as farm ponds or farm dams) can result in reduced mean annual flows, particularly during dry years. Climate change, which will very likely exacerbate extreme weather conditions including droughts, may accelerate the growth of farm dams in semi-arid agricultural areas with limited access to surface water. The aim of this study is to evaluate farm dam development and total farm dam water volumes at regional scales using Landsat water indices (WIs). The Murray-Darling Basin (MDB, 1.061 million km2) in south and eastern Australia, which has experienced a sustained growth in farm dams in the 1990s and early 2000s, is used as a case study. Using a pixel validation dataset, four WIs were trialled for their capabilities to detect the presence of water in farm dams. Of the WIs tested here, AWEI shadow showed the best performance. As a result, AWEI shadow was used to establish the year in which water was first observed (i.e., its year of commission) in 727,081 farm dams across the MDB and to calculate the total farm dam volume in the region. Farm dams' volume in the MDB increased more than twofold between 1990 and 2020, from 1241.0 MCM (million cubic meters) to 2,629.5 MCM. The growth differed across MDB regions, generally accelerating during the 'Millennium Drought' (2001–2009). In the entire MDB, there was rapid development in the 1990s with 3.1% growth. Growth was 2.5% from 2000 to 2010, tapering off to 0.6% from 2010 to 2020. In Robertson et al. (this issue), the year-by-year growth in farm dams' volume were used in a rainfall-runoff model thereby incorporating the time-varying effects of farm dams. Robertson et al. (this issue) show that explicitly modelling farm dams improves the model's performance relative to a traditional rainfall-runoff model that ignores the effects of farm dams. Hence, this improves the capability of assessing the direct impacts of farm dams and their potential growth in climate change studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Grazed agricultural landscapes provide important habitats for many frog species. • Frogs responded to interactions between management and environmental variables. • Frog abundance increased with proximity to water, more in remnants than in paddocks. • Taller ground cover in remnants resulted in greater abundance of some frogs. Improved management of human-modified landscapes must be part of global efforts to combat biodiversity loss. We aimed to identify which land management types and environmental factors influenced the use of grazing landscapes by frogs. We surveyed frog assemblages in remnant vegetation, four different paddock types (pasture, linear planting, coarse woody debris addition and fence), and two grazing regimes (continuous and rotational). Frogs were surveyed using pitfall and funnel traps in twelve grazing farms in south-eastern Australia. We found that grazed agricultural landscapes provide important habitats for a variety of species of frogs and that frog assemblages were influenced by both farm management type and environmental variables, and their interactions. Total frog abundance increased with proximity to water more strongly in remnants compared to paddocks. This difference in response may be due to different traits and behaviours of frogs in remnants compared to frogs in open paddocks. Rare frog species richness and abundance of a common species (Limnodynastes tasmaniensis) increased with taller ground cover in remnants but no such relationship occurred in paddocks. Different types of predation risk in remnants compared to paddocks may result in greater ground cover shelter requirements in remnants, as vegetation structure can strongly influence predation. Total frog species richness increased more rapidly with higher rainfall in continuously grazed versus rotationally grazed farms. Higher rainfall was associated with taller ground cover. Continuously grazed farms had shorter average ground cover than rotationally grazed farms and the increased ground cover height associated with more rain may bring ground cover to a height better able to provide shelter and reduce desiccation risk for frogs. Our study highlights the importance of both land management practices and environmental conditions and their interaction in shaping frog assemblages. Improved frog biodiversity conservation may be achieved in grazing landscapes by retaining patches of remnant vegetation, maintaining water bodies such as farm dams, and maintaining tall ground cover within vegetation remnants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Australia's ancient geology, continental isolation and long, stable biophysical evolution have produced a unique and biodiverse flora and fauna complex, and well-balanced mechanisms for handling water, nutrients and organic production in its landscapes. When humans arrived more than 40,000 years ago, Australia's water, nutrient and energy systems were essentially self-sustaining. Western agricultural methods have since uncoupled parts of the innate productivity system that had long sustained these natural landscape functions. Many Australian farming and grazing businesses are today challenged from unreliable rainfall, declining soil health and rising debt. New landscape management approaches are now emerging. Some involve rehydration to reinstate Australia's natural biophysical landscape functions and processes, and can deliver both ecosystem resilience and profitability to farming enterprises. Benefits of landscape rehydration for farmers include greater water reliability, improved soil organic content and reduced reliance on high-cost artificial inputs. It also assists in mitigating climate change, as vegetated, rehydrated landscapes dissipate incoming solar thermal energy via the plant-driven photosynthetic process and the daily water cycle. This feature, until now little recognised in mainstream climate change discussions, adds a major dimension to this opportunity for the world's landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Over nearly three decades, Suzanne Prober has played a pivotal role in shifting research in Australian agricultural landscapes to include a focus on native woodlands, and to examine ways woodland conservation can co‐exist with production, contributing to new models for conservation within multi‐use landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Throughout the world spontaneous growth of vegetation (regrowth) often results from land use change such as reduced or ceased agricultural activity. Abundant and extensive regrowth typically has significant implications such as risks to human wellbeing (e.g. wildfire), and opportunities for low cost broad-scale land restoration and biodiversity conservation. Management of regrowth may be contentious due to differing views amongst stakeholders. Developing effective management strategies for biodiversity outcomes requires clear understanding of social perceptions of regrowth. This paper is based upon 53 semi-structured interviews exploring stakeholder perceptions, views and management of regrowth in a post-agricultural landscape in central Victoria, Australia. Aspects of discourse—in particular narratives (themes of discussion) and frames (philosophical perspectives) enabled interpretation of how different stakeholders perceived their changing landscape. Stakeholders typically viewed the shrubby regrowth through one of three frames expressed through a range of narratives that conveyed meaning: “Control”—a negative interpretation of the regrowth, “Accept”—a positive interpretation; and “Ambivalent”—a fusion of the Control and Accept frames. As frames profoundly influence behaviours, we suggest using the frames and narratives identified in the research to develop interventions that enable biodiversity outcomes from the regrowth. Social acceptability of regrowth will be fostered if the interventions acknowledge stakeholder concerns congruent with the three frames identified—in particular as expressed by the ‘use’, ‘nature’ and ‘restoration’ narratives which span the three frames. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context: The identification of habitat structures with biologically meaningful links to habitat quality has enabled an increased understanding of wildlife distributions in fragmented landscapes. However, knowledge is lacking of where these structures occur in the landscape. Objectives: For a broad-scale agricultural landscape, we investigated how the occurrence and abundance of wildlife habitat structures is related to abiotic conditions and land management practices, and whether this differed between old growth and regrowth woodland. Methods: We used generalised linear mixed models to investigate the distribution of eight habitat structures in the South-West Slopes bioregion of south-eastern Australia. Results: Only one habitat structure, canopy depth, was related to abiotic conditions alone, whereas only leaf litter cover was related to land management practices only. Each of the other structures (abundance of logs, large trees, hollow-bearing trees, mid-sized trees and dead trees, and amount of native grass cover) was related to a combination and/or interaction of abiotic conditions and land management practices. Old growth woodland had higher log, large tree and hollow-bearing tree abundance, whereas regrowth woodland had higher mid-sized tree and dead tree abundance. Conclusions: Our findings inform key management prescriptions that can be used to improve conservation efforts so they have strong, quantifiable effects on wildlife habitat in temperate agricultural landscapes. Our case study shows that by understanding how management actions in specific abiotic conditions lead to the increased occurrence or abundance of particular habitat structures, management can be spatially targeted to alternative conservation strategies relevant to the landscape of interest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of Australia's leading on-ground extension officers describes the successes and lessons learned in The Riverina's native revegetation movement over the 20-25 years - but warns of potential failure of current and future Australian revegetation programs if greater funding security is not delivered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An introduction to the article is presented in which the editor discusses various reports within the issue on topics including the concepts of landscape management in Australia, the challenges face by the agricultural production landscapes, and the history of the country's agricultural policy.

Human activities, particularly agriculture, have transformed much of the world's terrestrial environment. Within these anthropogenic landscapes, a variety of relictual and semi-natural habitats exist, which we term countryside elements. The habitat value of countryside elements (hereafter termed ‘elements’) is increasingly recognised. We quantify the relative value of four kinds of such ‘elements’ (linear roadside remnants, native vegetation patches, scattered trees and tree plantings) used by a threatened Australian arboreal marsupial, the squirrel glider (Petaurus norfolcensis). We examined relationships between home range size and the availability of each ‘element’ and whether the usage was relative to predicted levels of use. The use of ‘elements’ by gliders was largely explained by their availability, but there was a preference for native vegetation patches and scattered trees. We found home range size was significantly smaller with increasing area of scattered trees and a contrasting effect with increasing area of linear roadside remnants or native vegetation patches. Our work showed that each ‘element’ was used and as such had a role in the conservation of the squirrel glider, but their relative value varied. We illustrate the need to assess the conservation value of countryside elements so they can be incorporated into the holistic management of agricultural landscapes. This work demonstrates the disproportional value of scattered trees, underscoring the need to specifically incorporate and/or enhance the protection and recruitment of scattered trees in biodiversity conservation policy and management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Globally, modification of landscapes for agriculture has had a strong influence on the distribution and abundance of biota. In particular, woodland-dependent birds are under threat across agricultural landscapes in Britain, North America and Australia, with their decline and extirpation attributed to the loss and fragmentation of habitat. Other native species have become over-abundant in response to anthropogenic landscape change and have strong interactive effects on avian assemblage structure. In eastern Australia, the hyper-aggressive noisy miner ( Manorina melanocephala) often dominates woodlands in agricultural landscapes through interspecific competition, resulting in declines of species richness of woodland-dependent birds. We aimed to determine the relative influence and importance of interspecific competition, in situ habitat structure and landscape structure for woodland-dependent bird species at the landscape level. We recorded species-specific landscape incidence of woodland-dependent birds in 24 agricultural-woodland mosaics (25 km 2) in southern Queensland, Australia. We selected extensively cleared landscapes (10–23 % woodland cover) where fragmentation effects are expected to be greatest. We applied generalised linear models and hierarchical partitioning to quantify the relative importance of the landscape-level incidence of the noisy miner, mistletoe abundance, shrub cover, woodland extent, woodland subdivision and land-use intensity for the incidence of 46 species of woodland birds at the landscape-scale. The landscape-level incidence of the noisy miner was the most important explanatory variable across the assemblage. Both in situ habitat structure and landscape structure were of secondary importance to interspecific aggression, although previous research suggests that the increasing incidence of the noisy miner in fragmented agricultural landscapes is itself a consequence of anthropogenic changes to landscape structure. Species’ responses to fragmentation varied from positive to negative, but complex habitat structure had a consistently positive effect, suggesting in situ restoration of degraded habitats could be a conservation priority. Landscape wide conservation of woodland-dependent bird populations in agricultural landscapes may be more effective if direct management of noisy miner populations is employed, given the strong negative influence of this species on the incidence of woodland-dependent birds among landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Long-term ecological studies (LTES) are critical for understanding and managing landscapes. To identify important research gaps, facilitate collaborations and communicate results, several countries have established long-term ecological research networks. A few initiatives to create such a network in Australia have been undertaken, but relatively few published data exist on the current state of LTES in Australia. In this paper, we present the results of an online survey of terrestrial LTES projects sent to academic, government and non-governmental organization-based researchers across Australia. We asked questions pertaining to the focus, scope, support and outcomes of LTES spanning 7 years or longer. Based on the information reported from 85 Australian LTES, we: (i) identify the biomes, processes and species that are under-represented in the current body of research; (ii) discuss important contributing factors to the successful development and survival of these projects; and (iii) make recommendations to help increase the productivity and influence of LTES across research, management and policy sectors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Transformation of the south-western Australian landscape from deep-rooted woody vegetation systems to shallow-rooted annual cropping systems has resulted in the severe loss of biodiversity and this loss has been exacerbated by rising ground waters that have mobilised stored salts causing extensive dry land salinity. Since the original plant communities were mostly perennial and deep rooted, the model for sustainable agriculture and landscape water management invariably includes deep rooted trees. Commercial forestry is however only economical in higher rainfall (>700mmyr−1) areas whereas much of the area where biodiversity is threatened has lower rainfall (300–700mmyr−1). Agroforestry may provide the opportunity to develop new agricultural landscapes that interlace ecosystem services such as carbon mitigation via carbon sequestration and biofuels, biodiversity restoration, watershed management while maintaining food production. Active markets are developing for some of these ecosystem services, however a lack of predictive metrics and the regulatory environment are impeding the adoption of several ecosystem services. Nonetheless, a clear opportunity exists for four major issues – the maintenance of food and fibre production, salinisation, biodiversity decline and climate change mitigation – to be managed at a meaningful scale and a new, sustainable agricultural landscape to be developed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is a major predator of Australian wildlife and livestock, but relatively few data exist on fox home-range size and movements in agricultural landscapes. We used radio-telemetry to measure variability in fox home-range size and overlap, and to quantify nightly movements in farmland in south-eastern Australia. Home-range estimates were calculated using the Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP) and Kernel Contours methods. Fourteen foxes were radio-tracked, with home-range size varying from 287 to 3574 ha (mean = 1177 ha, ±920 ha (s.d.), n = 10 foxes) based on the 100% MCP and 151-3196 ha (mean = 639 ha, ± 930 ha (s.d.), n = 10 foxes) based on 95% Kernel. Home-range overlap was greater between subadults than adult foxes; especially at the core home-range level where adult home ranges were virtually exclusive. The average (minimum) area covered by adult foxes during a 12-h nightly period was 383 ha (±347 ha (s.d.), range = 136-1446 ha, n = 4 foxes). The minimum (straight-line) distance travelled by adult foxes during a night was 4.8-16 km (mean = 9.4 km, ± 3.7 km (s.d.), n = 4 foxes). Through continuous radio-tracking, we found that foxes habitually travel over the same ground when moving between foci of interest. Our results improve understanding of fox ranging behaviour in the agricultural landscapes of southern Australia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foxes concentrate their activities around den sites during the breeding period and regularly visit dens at other times of the year, meaning den location is an important consideration in efforts to control foxes and protect native prey species. We investigated factors that influence den-site selection by foxes to improve information on potential interactions with prey species, and assess the usefulness of targeting den sites for fox control. We measured 76 earthen and non-earthen fox dens on farmland in south-eastern Australia and compared these with paired random sites in relation to vegetation/land-use type, soil clay content, and proximity to landscape features (tree, water, fence and road). Most dens were earthen and primarily located in open farmland, whereas non-earthen dens were mostly found in roadsides. The proportion of non-earthen dens located by landholders (7.8% of 51 dens) was substantially lower than the proportion of non-earthen dens identified with radio-tracking (77.8% of 18 dens). The average clay content at earthen dens was significantly lower than that at non-earthen dens (t" = -5.192, P < 0.001) and random sites (t" = -5.196, P < 0.001). Soil texture was a key factor influencing fox den location, and this information should greatly improve fox control in agricultural landscapes for the benefit of native and non-native prey. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study develops a theoretical and empirical framework for optimal conservation planning using satellite land cover data and economic data from a farm survey. A case study is presented for a region within the South-west Australia Biodiversity Hotspot ( Nature 403, 853). This Biodiversity Hotspot is a focus for conservation investment as it combines a relatively high level of biodiversity with severe threat to the biodiversity from agriculture. The conservation planning model developed determines the optimal set of bush fragments for conservation. This model can also be used to assess the trade-off between the budget and a vegetation species metric. Results from the case study show that, without an effective conservation scheme that at least fences fragments, significant plant biodiversity losses will occur in the North East Wheatbelt Regional Organisation of Councils region of the WA wheatbelt over a 10-year period. A perfect price discriminating auction scheme could reduce the costs of conservation by around 17 per cent relative to a fixed-payment scheme; however, a fixed payment on outcome (measured as change in the species metric) scheme represents a viable second-best alternative, to a conservation auction, where conservation spending is spatially targeted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The process of natural regeneration is critical for sustaining remnant native vegetation and the ecosystem services it supports. We quantified the extent and pattern of Eucalyptus regeneration within remnant vegetation in a fragmented agricultural landscape in south-eastern Australia. Eucalyptus regeneration was absent at 42% of sites. Using an information-theoretic approach, we explored 13 possible models of Eucalyptus regeneration across multiple scales. The explanatory variables in the four models with empirical support (and their summed Akaike weights) were: grazing intensity (1.0), native ground cover (0.99), remnant area (0.83), tenure (0.67), canopy cover (0.21) and vegetation type (0.11). Averaging across these four models we predicted that the probability of Eucalyptus regeneration was highest (0.95) in relatively unmodified remnant native vegetation, that is, remnant vegetation on public land where grazing was light and the understorey was dominated by native plants. In contrast, the predicted probability of Eucalyptus regeneration was lowest (0.12) in small remnants on private land where grazing was heavy. Our results suggest that a large proportion of all remnant native vegetation in this landscape will disappear under existing land management and farming practices. Reducing grazing pressure within intensively grazed remnants appears to be the single most effective management intervention that will mitigate this threat. This will require a shift in conservation priorities away from large, intact remnants where regeneration does not appear to be affected, to poorer quality remnants—often small remnants or scattered trees—where regeneration is typically absent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interactions between wild carnivore abundance and landscape composition in agricultural landscapes are poorly understood despite their importance to both production and conservation. In Australia, introduced red foxes ( Vulpes vulpes) prey on both native species and lambs in the temperate agricultural regions. Historically these areas were extensively cleared of native vegetation. Recently revegetation programmes have been implemented, but there is concern that this may benefit foxes and hence increase their impacts. We used an artificial prey placed in eight revegetated (6-12% cover) and 10 cleared (0-1.5% cover) landscapes of ∼700 ha to assess how these landscapes influenced fox predation rates. In June and August 2006 (winter) when we expect fox populations to be relatively stable following juvenile dispersal, predation rates were 1.5-2 times higher in revegetated landscapes than in cleared landscapes. We found no evidence of microhabitat effects on predation rates suggesting these landscape-level differences were probably due to differences in fox population density. In April 2007 (autumn) the results were more variable, possibly indicating more transient populations including dispersing juveniles at this time. Our results suggest that the impact of foxes on highly vulnerable prey could increase with revegetation. However, the benefits of revegetation to prey may offset negative impacts of foxes and future work is required to assess the likely net effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the relatively young postsettler society of Australia, restoring nature to a pre-European ideal prompts a range of responses. We consider first the case of farmers in the southwest who reinterpret restorationist ideals as commensurate with continued productive land use. A local native species, the iconic malleefowl, is construed as a flagship for revaluing nature in a way that remains consistent with farmers' interests and sense of identity. Farmers position themselves, rather than scientists or Aboriginal people, as key stewards for managing agricultural landscapes. In comparison, restoration ideals for northern Australia center on attempts to keep 'still wild'nature and Aboriginal culture intact. The invasive cane toad is reviled as 'alien' in conservation-minded discourses; yet, where it has become familiar, it is also accorded positive symbolic meanings. This article illustrates the critical importance of qualitative cultural analysis in understanding the complexities of human agency in environmental management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Public expectations of soil management are gradually expanding beyond traditional primary production requirements to include diverse ecosystem services. In Australia, as in many other countries, the accommodation of these new expectations will require shifts in the practice of private land managers. In turn, this may require public intervention and the expenditure of public funds. However, public net benefits from soil management interventions are rarely established, in part due to a lack of understanding of the conceptual links between management changes, soil health, and associated services and benefits. This paper uses an ecosystem services-based approach to examine these links from an Australian perspective. Entrenchment of the popular soil health concept in field-based assessments of agricultural production potential was found to limit the concept''s applicability to questions of broader public benefit. Without expanding soil health to include more ecological indicators, the concept risks remaining peripheral to contemporary visions of multiple-outcome soil management in Australia. Conceptual and case study links were examined between soil properties and processes, soil-based services, and private and public net benefits. In this framework, benefits were produced from services, and were considered a more tangible point for public understanding and valuation than services. The qualitative case study highlighted many knowledge gaps relating to non-agricultural services and benefits from soils, particularly in the scaling-up of sub-paddock measurements, and in the form and constancy of relationships among services and benefits. Criteria for identifying priority public benefits from soil management were examined, namely, likelihood, degree, consequence, scale, direction, time lag, and valuation. Assumptions about these criteria require rigorous testing so that the what, where, when, and how of public benefits from changed soil management can be more clearly defined. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

1. The successful introduction of the red fox Vulpes vulpes into Australia in the 1870s has had dramatic and deleterious impacts on both native fauna and agricultural production. Historical accounts detail how the arrival of foxes in many areas coincided with the local demise of native fauna. Recent analyses suggest that native fauna can be successfully reintroduced to their former ranges only if foxes have been controlled, and several replicated removal experiments have confirmed that foxes are the major agents of extirpation of native fauna. Predation is the primary cause of losses, but competition and transmission of disease may be important for some species. 2. In agricultural landscapes, fox predation on lambs can cause losses of 1–30%; variation is due to flock size, health and management, as well as differences in the timing and duration of lambing and the density of foxes. 3. Fox control measures include trapping, shooting, den fumigation and exclusion fencing; baiting using the toxin 1080 is the most commonly employed method. Depending on the baiting strategy, habitat and area covered, baiting can reduce fox activity by 50–97%. We review patterns of baiting in a large sheep-grazing region in central New South Wales, and propose guidelines to increase landholder awareness of baiting strategies, to concentrate and coordinate bait use, and to maximize the cost-effectiveness of baiting programs. 4. The variable reduction in fox density within the baited area, together with the ability of the fox to recolonize rapidly, suggest that current baiting practices in eastern Australia are often ineffective, and that reforms are required. These might include increasing landholder awareness and involvement in group control programs, and the use of more efficient broadscale techniques, such as aerial baiting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Large scale ecological restoration in a highly heterogeneous and species-rich landscape requires big commitment to fine scale planning. In the southwest of Western Australia, in the Fitz-Stirling area of Gondwana Link, the Peniup Restoration project aimed to improve on such works. A multi-faceted approach was employed to re-establish a self-replicating biologically diverse plant system, ecologically informed in its design and consistent with the heterogeneous mosaic of plant associations found in the surrounding landscape. Outcomes from the project included a 950-ha restoration map composed of nine newly developed soil landscape/vegetation associations. A new 6 m wide direct seeding machine was developed to improve delivery and spatial configuration of establishing plants. These two developments were put to the test in 2008 through a 250 ha biodiverse carbon-funded restoration effort. This paper summarises the approaches used and initial results of those works. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rocky outcrops are prominent geological features in agricultural landscapes worldwide. Reptiles are a major component of these habitats and some species are restricted to, and more abundant on, rocky outcrops than in remnant vegetation. Rock outcrops are important to reptiles because they provide resources that are often limited in the surrounding landscape (e.g. micro-gradients in climatic conditions, basking- and retreat-sites). However, there is a knowledge gap in the literature addressing the conservation value of small, rocky outcrops. Management may be necessary to reverse habitat degradation in these systems. We identify four key areas of management that need to be addressed to improve outcrop habitat values and enhance biodiversity conservation in agricultural landscapes. Specific actions involve: (i) protecting outcrops from processes that cause damage to rock microhabitat, (ii) monitoring and managing changes in vegetation structure to maintain thermally suitable environments, (iii) applying integrated pest animal control and (iv) improving matrix management to enhance inselberg function and landscape connectivity. Further research is required to evaluate the efficacy of different management regimes on outcrop biota. We hope this paper will provide the stimulus for land managers to incorporate rocky outcrops in future biodiversity conservation programmes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the highly fragmented agricultural landscapes of temperate southern Australia, fodder shrubs are being established as part of commercial grazing enterprises to fill the summer-autumn livestock feed gap. These woody perennial plantings have greater structural complexity than conventional grazing systems and may supplement resources for native fauna. However, to date the resources provided by these systems are poorly defined or documented. In this paper, we identify the potential environmental values of fodder shrub plantings by considering natural and planted shrub-based systems, with a particular focus on planted saltbush in non-saline lands. In marginal agricultural areas, shrub-based perennial fodder crops can not only provide economic benefits through improved livestock productivity, but also contribute to reducing soil erosion and offer potential carbon sequestration opportunities. We contend that these systems may also provide resources for a range of native fauna. More information is needed on the biodiversity value of grazing systems based on perennial shrubs so that their potential to contribute to conservation in multifunctional landscapes can be fully realised and appropriate management recommendations provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A framework is presented for terrestrial conservation assessment that has been developed for Bush Heritage, an Australian non-profit organisation that manages land of outstanding conservation value through acquisition or working in partnership with other landowners. The framework is called Biodiversity Prediction using Ecological Processes and comprises seven conservation goals, with a set of candidate criteria and indicators for each goal. Particular emphasis is given to criteria that relate to habitat quality in addition to the more conventional focus on land quantity. The MCAS-S graphic user interface is used to help analyse the indicators and visualise the results in a transparent way that assists the decision-making process. The interface also allows indicators to be weighted differently, which among other things, allows analyses to reflect inter-regional differences in what represents high quality land. The framework was tested in a case study region (the Woodland region of south-eastern Australia), and the results reveal land that is potentially a priority for conservation investments. While the framework and case study results are indicative, and further analyses are required before they can be considered operational, the approach has potential application to other organisations in the private conservation sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Large-scale vegetation clearing accompanying agricultural development has been a major driver of biodiversity loss. Efforts to reverse this problem have often included revegetation, but the value of revegetated areas for biodiversity is poorly known. We addressed aspects of this knowledge gap using a case study in south-eastern Australia. We quantified relationships between bird species richness and the probability of detection for eight individual bird species and: (i) the context of a planting, i.e. the types of the vegetation cover in the neighborhood of a planting, (ii) the configuration of a planting, i.e. the location and geometry of a planting, and, (iii) the content of planting, i.e. the vegetation features of a planting. The presence and nature of the effects of these explanatory variables varied with each of our response variables. A combination of context, configuration and content variables were needed to explain the variability in species richness and the presence of individual species. Context effects were highly significant, particularly the amount of planted and remnant native vegetation surrounding plantings. We speculate that when the area surrounding a planting was potentially suitable, recognition of planting “patch” boundaries disappeared and, correspondingly, configuration effects such as planting size were limited. Our results suggest that maximizing the value of planted areas for bird biota requires consideration not only of the features of the vegetation within a planting, but also where a planting is placed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Despite the importance of fungi for restoration, their presence in revegetated sites has received little attention. We compared the diversity and composition of macrofungi (i.e. those that form fleshy mushrooms and truffles) in 12 sites where 3-to-6-year-old native trees and shrubs had been planted (woodland restoration sites), with that in six woodland remnants. All sites were within an agricultural landscape near Holbrook in New South Wales. Of 58 fungal genera recorded, 57% occurred in woodland restoration sites and 83% in nearby patches of remnant woodland. Of the genera found in restoration sites, 70% were also found in the woodland remnants. The dominance of early successional genera such as Lacceria and Scleroderma in restoration sites suggests windblown colonisation by fungi. The reduced proportion of hypogeous genera (truffles) that rely on mammal vectors, which are less likely to occur in the restoration sites, also supports the view that most fungi occurred in restoration through colonisation rather than being generated from soil spores. Greatest overall fungal diversity occurred in large remnants that had greater structural complexity. Across all sites, epigeous genera (mushrooms) were most common (78% of all taxa collected across 46 genera) and of the nutritional modes, mycorrhizal genera (forming symbiotic associations with plants) were the most common (206 collections, 71%, 25 genera). Both hypogeous and mycorrhizal fungi were positively associated with the diversity of native forb species (wildflowers), suggesting that lower fungal diversity in restoration sites is likely to be a consequence of long-term agricultural practices, particularly fertilizer use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scattered trees represent an important element within the agricultural matrix for birds. The aims of this study were to develop methods for mapping isolated trees from satellite imagery and to assess the importance of isolated trees for bird species richness. Field sampling of birds and plants was conducted at 120 sites in south-east Australia. We mapped tree cover from Landsat and SPOT images using a combination of spectral and segmentation based methods. Mapping of isolated trees as point objects was highly accurate (80-90%). Tree cover at spatial extents of 3-28 ha around sites explained 60% of the variability in woodland-dependent bird species richness. However, isolated trees in agricultural areas made just a small contribution to explaining the spatial variability in overall avian richness. This approach can be used for more extensive assessment of avian habitat quality from high spatial resolution images across a range of human modified landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Much effort is expended toward planning for conservation, natural resource management and sustainable land use in agricultural landscapes. Although often not explicitly stated, the aims of these efforts are often to restore natural capital for the provision of ecosystem services and stimulate multifunctionality in landscapes. However, the scarcity of resources for, and the potential economic impact of, ameliorative actions that restore natural capital necessitates the identification of cost-effective geographic priorities, or hotspots, which provide multiple ecosystem goods and services. This requires the integrated spatial modelling of multiple environmental and economic processes accompanied by clear goals and performance indicators. Identification of hotspots provides guidance for highly targeted land use change that cost-effectively adds to the stocks of natural capital in a landscape. Additionally, the multifunctionality of the landscape can be increased through the provision of multiple ecosystem goods and services. This paper begins by examining data requirements for identifying geographic hotspots for land use change. This study integrates traditionally disparate landscape-scale biophysical and economic data and models. The elements of natural capital considered here are species and ecosystems, soil and water resources, and the atmosphere. It is demonstrated that locating ameliorative actions towards hotspots will be more cost-effective at restoring natural capital and stimulating landscape multifunctionality than a random targeting approach. We calculate these efficiencies using a small set of indicators for assessing aspects of multifunctionality. The focus of this study is the agricultural landscapes of the Lower Murray region of south-eastern Australia. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In many agricultural landscapes, roadside (or road verge) environments provide important refuge for threatened native species and ecosystems, and are often selected as benchmark sites to guide restoration activities. However few studies have investigated potential temporal variability in roadside vegetation conditions. In this paper we used archived cadastral maps to determine road age and examine potential variability in roadside vegetation structures in a typical rural landscape in south-eastern Australia. We found significant differences in the density of mature trees for road segments in different road-age categories. The oldest roads (<1870s) were characterized by having the greatest density of large hollow-bearing Eucalyptus trees, but few native conifer trees or shrubs. Roads surveyed when broad-scale clearing commenced (1870–1879), and not the oldest roads, were found to be more intact in terms of the density of large pre-settlement trees, range of tree stem-size classes and overall shrub diversity. By contrast, the youngest roads (post-1900s) had the greatest number of native conifer trees, but few shrubs or large Eucalyptus trees. As a result, roads of different ages had different densities of hollow-bearing trees, which is discussed in terms of past land-use legacies. These results have important implications for selecting roadsides as benchmark sites for restoration activities, and highlight the critical importance of roadsides to conserving native biota in agricultural landscapes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The dryland agricultural landscape of north-west Victoria, Australia, includes isolated remnants of eucalypt woodland that are exposed to ongoing disturbance from sheep grazing and cropping activity. Biological soil crusts are a functionally important feature of these woodland communities. We used a modern form of regression (boosted regression tree (BRT) models) to investigate relationships between crust abundance and environmental and landscape variables. We also investigated whether the use of broad morphological groups of crust organisms is more informative than simply measuring total crust cover. Remnant size was the single most influential variable for crust abundance, with negligible crust cover in small patches (\5 ha). The BRT model also identified relationships between crust abundance and available P, soil C and perennial grass. We argue that disturbance from stock grazing and camping is the mechanism driving these relationships. Other variables related to crust abundance were proximity to the windward edge, litter cover and tree cover. Morphological groups showed a differential response to some variables, suggesting assessment of total cover may mask important patterns in community structure. Crust disturbance represents a serious issue for maintenance of ecosystem function in the study region, particularly loss of crusts from small remnants because the majority of remnants are small. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Land use planners, natural resource managers and policy-makers need to better anticipate and respond to the widespread changes and increasing pressures affecting land and seascapes. Social science and social–ecological research can play an important role in addressing these issues, as many – if not all – of the issues and solutions are human in nature. This paper explores the potential for utilising social profiles of a wide range of landholders in two rapidly changing agricultural landscapes in the Wet Tropics of Australia as a means to interpret historical land use change, and to assess the potential for future landscape change trajectories. The social profiles, developed from qualitative interview analysis, are based on key characteristics of different groups of landholders and include: (1) length of farm occupancy, (2) farm size, (3) farm ‘survival’ strategy, (4) commercial crops grown, and (5) landholder values attached to place. A set of social profiles emerged from the two locations that indicate an evolving agricultural and social landscape that is associated with changing perceptions and values—especially around the themes of rural space, land occupancy and use and management of that space. These profiles, in combination with an understanding of the changing economic and social context of the region, provide a means for improving land use planning, natural resource management and policy formulation, particularly in locations where a shift in the social profile may be occurring, creating opportunities for large-scale landscape change. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Mature trees scattered throughout agricultural landscapes are critical habitat for some biota and provide a range of ecosystem services. These trees are declining in intensively managed agricultural landscapes globally. We developed a simulation model to predict the rates at which these trees are declining, identified the key variables that can be manipulated to mitigate this decline, and compared alternative management proposals. We used the initial numbers of trees in the stand, the predicted ages of these trees, their rate of growth, the number of recruits established, the frequency of recruitment, and the rate of tree mortality to simulate the dynamics of scattered trees in agricultural landscapes. We applied this simulation model to case studies from Spain, United States, Australia, and Costa Rica. We predicted that mature trees would be lost from these landscapes in 90–180 years under current management. Existing management recommendations for these landscapes—which focus on increasing recruitment—would not reverse this trend. The loss of scattered mature trees was most sensitive to tree mortality, stand age, number of recruits, and frequency of recruitment. We predicted that perpetuating mature trees in agricultural landscapes at or above existing densities requires a strategy that keeps mortality among established trees below around 0.5% per year, recruits new trees at a rate that is higher than the number of existing trees, and recruits new trees at a frequency in years equivalent to around 15% of the maximum life expectancy of trees. Numbers of mature trees in landscapes represented by the case studies will decline before they increase, even if strategies of this type are implemented immediately. This decline will be greater if a management response is delayed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A simple scenario and modelling approach to farm design was used to investigate the potential for improving on-farm conservation outcomes in three mixed grain–livestock farms in eastern Australia. With an increasing emphasis on multiple benefits from land management in agricultural landscapes, and current policy frameworks governing natural resource management and agriculture in Australia, much of the cost of conservation is expected to be borne by farmers. This is especially so in terms of production opportunity costs, which go largely unrecognised (and uncosted) in landscape planning. Simple landscape ecology design principles were applied to existing farm configurations in a scenario process to improve protection and connectivity of natural parts of the landscape, and the direct (infrastructure) and indirect (loss of production) costs were calculated. A 3 stage approach was taken to develop scenarios: (1) identify major threatening processes and mitigating actions to prevent further decline in natural resources; (2) identify opportunities for enhancing landscape configuration in respect of the landscape ecology principles outlined below; and (3) explore agricultural opportunities to offset financial losses to conservation. Depending on the specific agricultural activity mix and ecological condition of farms, small changes to the production base can have large impacts on farm enterprise profitability. Modelled economic impacts show that there are substantial opportunity income losses from applying conservation-based scenarios, and that there are limited opportunities to offset these with changed farming practices that do not create other environmental problems. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Fragmented remnant woodlands in agricultural landscapes are of high conservation value world-wide. Many eucalypts in agricultural landscapes of Australia are in decline. We aimed to investigate nutrient enrichment as a process that may contribute to eucalypt decline. We studied remnant woodlands that had been exposed to distinct recent and current livestock grazing treatments: Currently Intense Grazed; Recently Intense Grazed (until 3 years ago); Recent Intermediate Grazed; and Recent Lightly Grazed by livestock. We assessed soil nutrient status and penetrability, eucalypt foliar nutrition and stable isotope ratios for N and C, attributes of understorey vegetation, and tree health. Soils of the Currently Intense Grazed treatment had high levels of ammonium and Colwell-P. Total N, P, C:N ratio and soil penetrability were generally high in Currently Intense Grazed and Recently Intense Grazed treatments relative to Recent Intermediate Grazed and Recent Lightly Grazed treatments. Foliar N, N stable isotope ratios, P and carbon stable isotope ratios (δ 13C) were generally higher (less negative δ 13C) in trees on Currently Intense Grazed and Recently Intense Grazed treatments than in trees on Recent Intermediate Grazed and Recent Lightly Grazed treatments. Soil surface litter, tall and low shrubs and rock were positively correlated with tree health. Grasses and eucalypt foliar N, P and δ 13C were negatively correlated with tree health. Soil nutrient enrichment increased with increasing grazing intensity and was associated with increased weed invasion and with poor tree health that was in turn correlated to increased foliar N and P and less negative δ 13C in woodland trees in this study. We argue that minimising soil nutrient enrichment of fragmented remnant woodlands is important, given the association of elevated soil nutrition with poor tree health, to ensure the persistence of eucalypts in agricultural landscapes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]