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Translanguaging, defined as "the deployment of a speaker's full linguistic repertoire without regard for watchful adherence to the socially and politically defined boundaries of named (and usually national and state) languages" (Otheguy et al., 2015, p. 281), has great potential to play a key role in English as a Second Language (ESL) classrooms and institutions. This article first explores the origins and historical development of the concept of translanguaging before examining more general recent developments and applications of this concept internationally and in Australia. The final section provides suggestions for how to apply some of the principles of translanguaging in the adult ESL classroom, with a particular focus on specific translanguaging practices that have been used with Direct Entry English for Academic Purposes students.

This paper explores the reported practices of five specialist EAL/D teachers from a rural Australian town. They work with a cohort of refugee students from a single cultural group, who recently arrived in Australia with minimal English and with generally low levels of literacy in their first language. A questionnaire and semi-structured interview were used as data collection tools to explore how plurilingualism was being supported amongst these students. Our findings indicated that plurilingual practices occurred predominantly in the EAL/D setting, where participants benefited from favourable conditions. These conditions were characterised by a homogenous student group and allowed for a slowing down of the curriculum and the incorporation of students' first languages in the learning process. The presence of skilled bilingual aides was the lynchpin for the success of plurilingual practices in this study. Our research highlighted the need for further investigation into the enablers and barriers of collaborative practice between EAL/D and mainstream teachers and the role bilingual aides play in supporting plurilingualism in schools. There is evidence from this study to support reframing the concept of bilingual education in Australia, to better capture the complexities of plurilingual interactions in school contexts.

Language is often regarded as one of the characteristics of interaction-based observed race, and heritage language is no exception. Considering the bilingual cultural environment of the Chinese community in Australia, this research analyses the language-ethnic identity relationships of Chinese-Australian adolescents. Drawing on in-depth qualitative interviews and participant observations, it examines the role of Chinese as a heritage language in these adolescents' ethnic identity formation process from a multidimensional perspective. The paper demonstrates that Chinese as a heritage language acts simultaneously as a link, an indicator and a stress in the construction of the adolescents' identities in the dimensions of self-identification, observed ethnic identity and reflected ethnic identity. It also highlights that there can be disparities among different dimensions of ethnic identity and examines the complex factors behind this.

Language-specific (i.e. the ideal L2 self) and plurilingual selves are now at the forefront of scholarly inquiry in L2 motivation research. Yet, there is a lack of empirical studies examining how language learners reframe their sense of self as speakers of an L2. This study draws on a questionnaire (N = 162) and on semi-structured interviews (N = 10) and explores the ways in which university students of Italian and German describe their proficiency-related motivations. In particular, it examines their bilingual and plurilingual aspirations in relation to broader discourses on the value of L2 learning in their socio-context of learning, where the ability to speak a second language is not the norm. The findings show that learners' motivation display both language-specific and non-language-specific features. While many students viewed the acquisition of fluency in the L2 as their end goal, others connected L2 learning to the attainment of non-language-specific bilingual and plurilingual identities, regardless of the L2 being learnt. L2 proficiency enabled the respondents in this study to position themselves in their local English-dominant socio-context as educated, open-minded, cultivated and more globally connected individuals.

Many bilingual infants attend early childhood education centres (ECEC) with their monolingual peers. However, recent evidence reveals that bilingual infants vocalise significantly less than monolingual infants in ECEC settings (Zheng et al. 2023) [Effects of Multilingualism on Australian Infants' Language Environments in Early Childhood Education Centers. Infant Behavior and Development, 70, 101799.], suggesting that educators may need to provide language tailored strategies to support bilingual infants' language learning. This study examines how educators support Mandarin-English bilingual infants' learning and development through a range of translanguaging practices in Australian ECEC contexts. We identified three functions of fluid translanguaging pedagogies: (1) make meaning and acknowledge children's bilingual repertoires during play-based interactions; (2) introduce the connections between two languages during literacy and play activities; (3) provide emotional support or regulate behaviour through the use of home language. We also identified educators' language-supporting strategies such as repetition, expanding their own/child's utterances, labelling and questioning during translanguaging practices. This study is the first to closely describe the dynamic nature of translanguaging interactions between early childhood educators and Mandarin-English bilingual children under the age of two. Findings highlight the importance of translanguaging for scaffolding infants' bilingual language learning, fostering their bilingual identities and supporting their wellbeing.

Drawing on the concept of family language policy (FLP), this paper reports on how four Chinese-English interlingual families maintain the minority language of Chinese with their preteenager children in Australia. The study takes an integrative approach to explore both parents' and children's perspectives on language development. While highlighting the increasing role that preteenagers play in the maintenance of a minor heritage language, the findings reveal that successful language maintenance in interlingual families is influenced by many other interacting factors, like language practice, attitude and support from each parent, language status, and the role of community schools. The study has clear implications for bilingual parenting and heritage language education in terms of the importance of a consistent FLP, preteenagers' self-efficacy, and actual language use in language maintenance.

This article examines the institutional and market treatment of the profession of interpreting in the English-monolingual context of Australia. Based on qualitative interview methods with 67 healthcare interpreters in Australia, the study aims to explore the impact of the linguistic hierarchies in favour of English on the financial and professional valuing of bilingualism and bilingual workers, most of whom are migrants speaking English as their additional language. With Bourdieu's linguistic market as a key theoretical framework, the findings reveal how deeply English monolingualism is entrenched in the local interpreting industry and healthcare institutions and how the pervasive monolingual ideologies work to devalue bilingualism as a non-skill. The study highlights strong ties between monolingualism, power, class and race, with a particular focus on the migrant-concentrated aspect of the interpreting profession. It illuminates the role of language in justifying and sustaining power and structural inequalities, which, in turn, disproportionately impacts vulnerable populations.

In countries such as Australia, the bi/multilingual student demographic is increasing. Bi/multilingual students are commonly learning alongside monolingual students and also Indigenous and first- and second-generation immigrant students who have a great range of exposure to heritage languages. In this article, we explore how literacies and language variation can be drawn together in order to support teachers' navigation of linguistic diversity in the English classroom. More specifically, we discuss how linguistic variation can be an explicit focus, and how extending students' linguistic repertoire can be an end in itself. If home language resources are solely considered to be a scaffold for standardised English language practices at school, or a way to transition students to English, they are not applicable to monolingual (in English) students nor students who have grown up speaking English as well as another home language. This orientation does not do justice to the learning potential related to linguistic diversity. We propose that the embedding of language variation in literacies and multimodality, digital multimodal composing in particular, is a way to address the intrinsic value of developing students' linguistic repertoire as a whole.

The aim of this study is to identify factors associated with Vietnamese-Australian parents' language use and attitudes towards home language maintenance. Vietnamese-Australian parents (n = 151) with children aged under 18 completed a survey regarding demographic factors and factors conceptualised by Spolsky's language policy theory: language practices, language ideologies, and language management. Bivariate analyses and multiple regression models were conducted to explore associations between parents' language use and their attitudes towards home language maintenance and associated factors. "Parents' language use with their child" was significantly associated with their language practices (parents' language use in social situations). "Parents' language use in social situations" was significantly associated with language practices (parents' Vietnamese and English proficiency, parents' language use with their child), language management (frequency of attendance at community events), and one demographic factor (age). "Parents' attitudes towards home language maintenance" was significantly associated with language ideology factors (perceptions of cultural identity, belief in the importance of English language maintenance, belief that home language strengthens relative bonds and widens career options), and one demographic factor (income). The results can be used to assist families with Vietnamese heritage to maintain their home language by informing targeted approaches to supporting language maintenance at the community and family level.

For teachers, storytelling is a way of making sense of everyday pedagogical practices and connecting with colleagues. In this paper, we explore how storytelling contributed to a collaborative culture indicative of our professional journey as four teacher educators. We examine six online weekly Zoom conversations we participated in as a teaching group to share our pedagogical ideas for enhancing an English education unit of work. During this storytelling, we discussed how we engaged with the teaching of, teaching about and teaching through the teaching and learning curriculum cycle to a first-year cohort of preservice teachers (PSTs). Importantly, we deliberated on how we could make our pedagogical decision-making visible to PSTs, illustrating the importance of teacher collaborative storytelling. We contend that by creating time and an online space for us as teacher educators to share, consider, evaluate and think collectively about pedagogical practices we not only developed a better understanding of our subject area but provided a collaborative professional learning model to our PSTs. We hope that other English teachers may read a little of their own professional journeys in our storytelling and be encouraged to engage with a professional collaborative dialogic space. This paper does not purport to suggest that this is the only way to teach English education to PSTs. Rather, it is about making visible who we are as learners and our practice as teacher educators and storytellers.

The reawakening of the Indigenous Gamilaraay language in northern inland New South Wales, Australia involves righting two centuries of prohibition and mistreatment after invasion by English-speaking settlers. Gamilaraay is no longer used as an everyday language in the community, although it has strong emblematic value for the Gamilaraay community. The hegemonic power of English means that it is seen as "normal", while Gamilaraay use is often confined to ceremonial uses. A burgeoning awareness of the importance of Gamilaraay and other Indigenous languages of New South Wales has been reflected in recent legislative changes, which have in turn resulted in funding support for language materials. This article describes a community development approach in writing bilingual picturebooks in Gamilaraay and English as we progress towards our ultimate aim of normalising the use of Gamilaraay once more. [Note: The page range (5-19) shown on the first two pages of the PDF are incorrect. The correct page range for this article is p5-20.]

For many Indigenous children living in remote communities, the prerequisites to achieving strong language and learning outcomes include the maintenance of their first languages and progress in learning English as an additional language. This paper reports on data from a Linkage study conducted with families at two Families as First Teachers (FaFT) playgroups in two remote Northern Territory communities. The data highlight the ways parents and carers encouraged very young children to engage in home languages as a foundation on which to develop skills in English during play and book reading activities. Transcripts of mother-child book reading and play sessions and reflections of FaFT Family Liaison Officers are examined to explore the language interactions and the strategies used by mothers to support children's multilingual learning. The data highlight the importance of early childhood teaching and learning that honours children's linguistic and cultural resources and prioritises families' aspirations for children's multilingual language learning.

Evidence shows that when young children's diverse language heritages are valued and supported, there are benefits for their linguistic and conceptual development, their sense of identity and their learning. However, there are few early learning settings in Australia which nurture young children's bilingual repertoires. And, while it is well established that early childhood is a critical period for first and second language acquisition, there is a lack of empirical research available on children's bilingual development in institutional early childhood education and care. Against this backdrop, our article reports on a study of a bilingual Samoan community kindergarten (a'oga amata) in southeast Queensland. In this paper, we focus on how the a'oga amata supported the maintenance of the children's heritage language and culture. We explore language use in the a'oga amata, the cultural values underpinning the educators' practices, and the positive responses of the children and parents in the study. We also examine the constraints on the community leaders and educators' efforts to create an authentic bilingual experience in this English-dominant environment. Finally, we revisit the notion of safe spaces for young bilingual learners (Conteh & Brock, 2011) and rearticulate the need for clear language policies that support heritage language education.

This paper analyses the current state of postcolonial and decolonial science teaching, based on a systematic review of the literature, with a special focus on the European context. It shows that currently, a very narrow view on postcolonial science teaching prevails, limiting its scope to former colonies. A total of 227 articles published 2013-2022 were identified using meta-interpretation combined with systematic searches. 43 of these articles were selected for the sample and analysed. Included were only articles reporting on teaching practice in regular science classes in secondary school. The analysis identified as the main theme the question of how to coordinate Indigenous knowledge systems and Western science in the classroom. Further, translanguaging and pedagogy of justice are used as approaches toward decolonising science education. One striking finding in the analysis is the absence of de-/postcolonial approaches from European countries. This indicates that teaching practice in Europe might currently not undergo decolonisation. This contradicts Aimé Césaire's observation that both the colonised "and" the colonisers were decivilised during colonialism and need decolonisation [Césaire, A. (1955). "Discours sur le colonialisme" [Discourse on colonialism] (6th ed.). Présence Africaine]. In this article, the different approaches toward decolonisation and an outline of decolonial science teaching for the European context are presented.

Multilinguals' feelings of difference when switching languages have been discussed extensively. However, this research area has mainly focused on multilinguals dominant in their first language (L1), examining the feelings they experience when using any language other than the L1 (LX). The present study offers a novel perspective on this topic and focuses on 19 Russian Australians belonging to the 1.5 generation, who participated in semi-structured interviews. This generation of childhood sequential bilinguals, by virtue of their early second language (L2) acquisition, is usually L2 dominant or L1+L2 dominant. This study presents qualitative analyses on these speakers' feelings of difference in relation to their L1, Russian, and L2, English. Participants' sense of feeling different typically emerged when using the L1, a language that maintained a strong emotional resonance, even when the speakers were potential L1 attriters. Hence, the combination of the emotional connotations attributed to the L1 and the inability to fully express themselves in this language seemed to intensify these speakers' feelings of difference when using the language. These findings highlight the importance of focusing on the 1.5 generation, and on LX-dominant multilinguals in general, to better understand the potential role of L1 attrition on multilinguals' self-perceptions when switching languages.

This article aims to visibilise the opportunities for decolonising standardised language practices for multilingual students learning English as an additional language or dialect (EAL/D) in Australian schools. We suggest that a decolonising approach to language education would value the multilingual, non-standard, and diverse language practices of learners. Using the Australian state of Queensland as a case study, we trace examples of decolonising language practices highlighted by teachers in focus groups and analyse these examples using a theoretically-informed, reflexive thematic analysis to unpack how teachers disrupt colonial binaries in EAL/D education. Our findings show that teachers encourage multilingualism, relationality, and the discomfort of unknowing but are confronted with practical barriers that limit their capacity to enact this further. As such, we outline the implication for EAL/D education and teacher education.

Most Indigenous peoples live in urban and regional locations across Australia and no longer speak their traditional languages fluently. Instead contact languages, creoles and dialects, are widely spoken. In many educational settings, educators may know little about the first languages of the Indigenous children they teach, and not recognise these as different languages or dialects. Consequently, these students may not be treated as second language learners of Standard Australian English (SAE) and their language learning requirements are not considered. From a sociocultural perspective, language is crucial to students' learning. In this paper, we quantitatively analyse the SAE learning needs of Indigenous primary school aged children in Far North Queensland using oral elicited imitation of simple sentences in SAE as a research method. Using one-way ANOVA, the results are compared with native monolingual SAE speakers showing significant differences between the two. This finding has important implications for classroom teaching practices and educational policies.

This study explores the language habitus and practices in one Vietnamese immigrant family in Melbourne. It contributes to research on family language policy in multicultural contexts. Using a Bourdieusian framework to explore the interrelationships between language beliefs, practices and management in a nuanced way, the article discusses how the children's and adults' language beliefs are situated in their lived experiences as a result of their participation in the different social fields of family, school, and the workplace. The article then further examines the "structuring" feature of the habitus through an exploration of the children's agency in family language policy in two aspects: their manifestation of their agency as well as how their habitus and their accumulated capital shape their language practices. Findings point to the shared multilingual habitus between the grandmother, mother and the two children and children's agency in family language practices and management. The data analysis and theoretical discussions suggest that Bourdieu's concepts are useful and nuanced lenses to investigate family language policy and are complementary to Spolsky's seminal theoretical framework of family language policy.

This paper contributes to southern theorization of multilingualisms. Noting the predominance of northern-generated academic debates, we discuss perspectives from close engagement with southern socio-historical and political contexts, and through prioritizing community and teacher outlooks on multilingualism. Our account is illustrated with examples of linguistic citizenship that highlight local agency and dialogue in border-crossing across multiple linguistic and institutional regimes. Drawing on examples from our research in Brazil, South Africa and Australia, we focus on four agentic multilingual moves that illustrate linguistic citizenship and challenge coloniality. Each of these moves (contestation, transgression, negotiation, and conversation) implies that teachers must situate their work within relationships of reciprocity, and 'from below.'

Australian schools are increasingly linguistically and culturally diverse places, and yet, the monolithic weight of the "monolingual mindset" (Clyne, 2008) still hulks at the centre of Australian education systems. Despite this, there is increasing recognition of the value of multilingualism, and the importance of incorporating students' home languages and multilingual abilities into teaching and learning. Teachers, teacher educators and curriculum developers seek guiding principles for multilingual approaches and examples of effective strategies which can be adapted and translated for diverse educational contexts. This paper suggests some principles which support effective multilingual pedagogy, illustrated with examples from students learning English as an additional language or dialect (EALD) and their teachers in two South Australian secondary schools. At a foundational level, a multilingual stance underpins the success of multilingual pedagogies. Attention to both vertical and horizontal dimensions of multilingualism (Heugh, 2018) is central to effective multilingual pedagogy. Additionally, the expertise of both students and teachers must be recognised and specified. Multilingual students are experts in using and managing their multilingual repertoires for interaction and learning, while teachers are responsible for learning design, teaching school literacies, and maintaining a supportive learning environment. A key to success is that multilingual pedagogies are developed from and respond to students' existing multilingual practices. It is hoped that these principles can help extend discussion around the use of multilingual resources and translanguaging practices in school-based learning, and give impetus to collaboration engaging students, teachers and researchers in action research and development of multilingual pedagogies. In this way, Australian education might begin to emerge from the shadow of the monolingual monolith.

The purpose of this study is to describe the errors made by Turks living in Sydney, Australia in Turkish written texts. The mistakes identified in the texts were handled with the error analysis approach and evaluated according to their linguistic, cognitive processing, communicative, spelling and punctuation characteristics. Content analysis technique, one of the qualitative research methods, was used in the research. The study group consisted of forty-one people, aged between 10-25 years, living in Sydney, Australia in 2017. Participants were asked to create a text of at least 250 words by selecting any of the seven elective subjects in the written expression form. The texts were then examined one by one and the errors were analyzed under four headings: linguistic, cognitive processing, communicative, spelling and punctuation. As a result of the analyzed data in written expression texts, 951 linguistic and cognitive processing, 343 communicative, 230 spelling and 178 punctuation errors were detected. By analyzing the written texts under these headings, it is thought that the mistakes will be identified more easily and be beneficial for the language teaching process and everyone involved in this process, that the mistakes can be avoided more easily by focusing on more efficient and goal-oriented works and that they will save time.

By looking beyond their written products into what they do as they write, this mixed methods study offers insights into the writing process of writers who have mastered one language and those who have mastered two. It investigates the cognitive effects of bilingualism and biliteracy on the writing processes of years ten and eleven Sydney high school writers across three groups (N = 30): English monolinguals, Chinese-English bilinguals, and Chinese-English biliterates, focusing on their formulation processes (i.e., how thoughts are converted into language and the written form). Findings indicate distinctive features and patterns of writing behaviours, possibly reflecting specific strengths and weaknesses for each group. The monolinguals demonstrated strategic use of vocabulary, while the biliterates and bilinguals demonstrated prospective and retrospective behaviours when formulating. These findings are discussed in light of studies on the writing process and on the effects of bilingualism.

English as an Additional Language (EAL) students are increasingly taught by non-specialist, mainstream teachers. This trend calls for a reconceptualization of teacher education to explicitly and purposefully include linguistically and culturally responsive pedagogy in their curriculum. In the United States, several frameworks have been proposed to address this need, although much still needs to be learned about actual practice in preservice teacher preparation programs. In this article, I caution against the monolingual bias in preservice teacher preparation and argue for the mandate for developing a multilingual stance for all teachers of EAL students.

Filipino migrants are the fifth largest migrant community in Australia. Filipino migration to the country has been driven by socioeconomic and political factors in both the Philippines and Australia. Against this context, this paper investigates heritage language maintenance practices of Filipino migrant families by using a 2019 interview-based research study with five Filipino migrant families residing in Sydney. The five families were selected based on two criteria: the region in the Philippines where they came from and having a focal child in primary school. The first criterion captured participants from different Philippine linguistic background, while the second ensured a common denominator across the five families that impacts on heritage language practices. Employing Family Language Policy (FLP) as a lens for analysis, the study shows three key findings: (1) the families came to Australia with multilingual repertoires; (2) the parents' language beliefs, mostly motivated by economic and social pressures attached to their ability to speak English well, dictated the family language practices in the home; and (3) their understanding of language learning plays a significant role in their FLP. This research is significant in terms of its contribution to advocacy and sociolinguistic research on heritage language maintenance among Filipino migrants (199).

A key factor that has been found to be critical in shaping family language policy is parents' linguistic identities, or "parents' personal experiences with bilingualism, biculturalism or second language learning" (King, Kendall A. & Lyn Fogle. 2006. Bilingual parenting as good parenting: Parents' perspectives on family language policy for additive bilingualism. "International Journal of Applied Linguistics" 9(6). 695-712, p. 703). In other words, parents' experiences of languages will colour and influence both their aims for their children's plurilingualism, and the practices that they bring to bear to that end. This proposition was explored in a paper by Sims, Margaret, Elizabeth M. Ellis & Vicki Knox. 2017. Parental plurilingual capital in a monolingual context: Investigating strengths to support young children in early childhood settings. "Early Childhood Education Journal" 45. 777-787 (p. 779), that "parents construct their own understandings of plurilingualism based on their own experiences with languages" meaning that the parents' linguistic identity indeed provides the potential and the basis for bringing up their children as plurilinguals. This paper, based on an Australian ARC-funded study, reports on the link between parents' linguistic identity and their family language policy, on their impact beliefs (De Houwer, Annick. 1999. Environmental factors in early bilingual development: The role of parental beliefs and attitudes. In G. Extra & L. Verhoeven (eds.), "Bilingualism and migration," 75-95. Berlin, Germany: Mouton de Gruyter, p. 83), on the ways in which their aims for their children's language development are articulated and put into practice, and on how they deal with their children's emerging linguistic identity as plurilinguals, in a linguistically isolated context in regional New South Wales.

Maintaining heritage languages is frequently desired by migrants to continue cultural and social connections to family and identity. However, in imagined monolingual nations such as Australia, efforts to transmit minority languages are seen as a private matter and largely unsupported. Transmission of culture and language is also frequently seen as women's work (Heller, Monica & Laurette Lévy. 1992. Mixed marriage: Life on the linguistic frontier. "Multilingua" 11(1). 32). This article seeks to explore how linguistically intermarried heterosexual couples orient to the task of heritage language maintenance along gender lines. It draws on a qualitative interview-based study into 22 couples living in Sydney. For the English-speaking background parents in the study, pressure to raise bilingual children arising out of a discourse of "intensive mothering" (Hays, Sharon. 1996. "The cultural contradictions of motherhood." New Haven: Yale University Press) was experienced in more negative ways by mothers than fathers. The analysis points to the effects of the non-migrant partner's first language and their gender on heritage language efforts in linguistically intermarried families, and their impact on the (dis)continuation of linguistic diversity.

The influential role of parents has long been acknowledged as a key contributor to children's bilingual development. Parents' home-based informal efforts to foster children's bilingual abilities are described as family language policies (FLPs). The important connection between bilingualism and FLP has been established, but to date there are few studies concerning Korean immigrant families in Australia, highlighting their unique cultural values. According to traditional Korean cultural values, mothers play a central role as An-hae (the sun inside) to facilitate their children's language development (Kim, 2006). This study aimed to create a clearer picture of Korean mothers' beliefs about bilingualism and their FLPs. The participants were six Korean mothers with their children attending a community language program in Sydney. There are two data sets for this study: a six-weeks' FLP daily log of each family and a focus group interview. A thematic analysis of these data revealed the richness and specificity of FLPs for bilingual development. This paper concludes with implications for a future research agenda.

In this conceptual paper, we explore the opportunities and challenges that translanguaging may provide for students from Australian Aboriginal backgrounds and their teachers. We use examples taken from Australian Aboriginal students who may speak Standard Australian English, Australian Aboriginal English, creoles (Kriol being the common one across the north of Australia) and traditional languages (e.g. Kija, Martu). We begin by examining the concept of translanguaging and show how Australian Aboriginal students can move fluidly between their various linguistic resources, dialects and repertoires to make meaning, express their thoughts, understandings and feelings, create their identities, and do so in often playful and creative ways. The principles of fair and valid assessment are explored and the role that translanguaging can fulfil for assessment purposes is considered. We also document some of the social, cultural and linguistic biases that underpin aspects of assessment, and make suggestions for improvement. In particular, we examine how teachers could approach assessment so that students with Aboriginal backgrounds are able to draw on their full linguistic repertoire and, in this way, address the issues surrounding discriminatory assessment practices that are founded on monolingual mindsets. We also take up the gauntlet to 'stop measuring black kids with a white stick' and seek positive and embracing ways for all students with Aboriginal backgrounds to engage in assessment practices.

By adopting a tripartite FLP framework, this study aims to explore the agentive role of Polish-speaking fathers in heritage language maintenance. At the outset, it should be noted that as the theme of paternal agency has not been given much prominence in research, this paper delves into how Polish fathers of heteronormative families endeavour to maintain the minority language. More significantly, with the perspective of a new father-child relationship characterised by acknowledged paternity, presence and active involvement in a child's life, the present article gives voice to fathers who want to engage in everyday language practices that seem to transgress the codes of hegemonic masculinity. Thus, the analysis of transcripts from semi-structured interviews disclose the informants' ample opportunities for childcare, and most importantly, their struggle for children's bilingual development. Fathers, as the primary agents, can have profound influence on their offspring's beliefs, values, attitudes and behavioural patterns concerning the heritage language. The investigation underlines the fact that the gender of the minority-language speaking parent is less important in bilingual childrearing than the actual access to resources, time, and motivation. The study suggests that paternal agency exerts a significant influence on children's linguistic orientation.

Purpose: This study aims to examine the effectiveness of bilingual learning strategies designed to support Chinese undergraduate business students facing significant learning challenges in an Australian university capstone curriculum delivered at their Chinese university. These challenges include the students' difficulty understanding discipline-specific English terminology, using this terminology to discuss disciplinary concepts with their instructors and stress caused by an abnormally high study load. Design/methodology/approach: In response to these challenges, the project team implemented a suite of bilingual strategies to reduce cognitive load and enhance learning, which included Chinese-English glossaries to build disciplinary-specific vocabularies; a bilingual teaching assistant to enable students to communicate in their language of choice; the use of WeChat to connect students to staff and to provide translanguaging opportunities; and bilateral managerial and academic support for strengthening the institutional cross-cultural relationship through staff exchange and language learning programs. A series of surveys were administered to measure the impact of these strategies on students' learning, and WeChat logs were analysed to determine students' linguistic preferences during discussions with staff and students. Findings: The results of this project show strong support for each bilingual strategy, high academic performance amongst the student cohort, the positive contribution to learning and connection provided by social media technology, students' language of choice preferences and chosen translanguaging styles and the important role of teaching staff in supporting international students' intercultural learning and adaptation to a foreign university learning system. Originality/value: This original evidence-based study helps to address the gap in bilingual education in Australian higher education demonstrating a successful strategy for dealing with language and discipline-specific challenges confronting EAL students.

Aotearoa New Zealand and Australia are similar in many ways. Both were colonised by English-speaking British settlers, and English is a national language in each country. In recent years, both countries have become destinations for immigrants speaking languages other than English and international fee-paying students. Both have a chequered history of maintaining the languages of the tangata whenua (people of the land) or aboriginal people. However, their histories and educational systems diverge on educational programmes and practices supporting citizens and newcomers from non-English heritage cultural and linguistic backgrounds. The linguistic and cultural histories of these two countries have shaped educational policies and practices that, in turn, have impacted how teachers are prepared to teach in linguistically and culturally heterogeneous classrooms. This paper reviews approaches found to support emergent bilingual learners, and those that research suggests are culturally sustaining. It then compares educational documents from Australia and NZ against principles drawn from this literature. It asks whether supporting the needs of emergent bilingual learners in mainstream classes in these countries emerges as a cultural or linguistic issue.

This study investigated the levels of heritage language anxiety (HLA) and major language anxiety (MLA) experienced by three generations of Korean immigrants (i.e. first, 1.5 and second generations) in their daily life contexts (i.e. with family members, with friends and with/around native speakers) in Australia. The study also examined the language background variables (i.e. age at exposure to Korean/English, self-rated Korean/English proficiency, and frequency of Korean/English use) and their relationships with HLA and MLA. All three generations showed relatively low levels of HLA in their daily life contexts and rated their Korean proficiency as high, implying that Korean language or HL has been well maintained by Korean immigrants in Australia. While the first-generation Korean participants expressed moderate to high levels of MLA, the 1.5- and second-generation groups showed very low levels of MLA. Self-rated language proficiency and frequency of language use showed strong and significant correlations with language anxiety. Pedagogical implications for heritage language (i.e. Korean) learning for 1.5- and second-generation Koreans, as well as major language (i.e. English) education for the first-generation Koreans, are discussed.

This paper explores the language planning strategies employed by Australian transnational families of Arabic-speaking backgrounds to develop their children's bilingualism in English and Arabic. The paper concludes that the families' transnationalism and strong links with their countries of origin played a significant role in their language planning decisions. The study revealed that the mothers consciously developed their children's bilingualism by means of both planned and spontaneous language management strategies. Semi-structured interviews and a focus group discussion revealed that the mothers used five main strategies, which comprised using the minority language at home, language mixing, reading stories, taking advantage of television shows and travelling to their hometowns. This paper discusses the validity and success of each strategy by comparing them with research findings on other transnational and migrant families around the world.

This study investigated the Family Language Policy of second- and third-generation Turkish parents in Melbourne, Australia. Earlier research has shown that the family home is a crucial site for language maintenance [Fishman 1991. "Reversing Language Shift: Theoretical and Empirical Foundations of Assistance to Threatened Languages." Clevedon: Multilingual Matters]. The family, and the family home, remains for most migrant groups and their younger generations the main domain for heritage language use. The presence of heritage language speakers, especially those with lower majority language (English) proficiency levels in the family, is conducive to language maintenance. However, in the case of second and third-generation, particularly Australian-born parents, communication in English with their children becomes more dominant. As there has been no earlier study on Family Language Policy of Turkish-speaking parents in Australia, data were collected on the language beliefs and practices of 45 bilingual families. The findings show that Turkish maintenance is a symbolic part of cultural identity of the families studied. Findings reveal the challenges faced by families concerning heritage language maintenance within the family home, particularly as children become more fluent in English and as further generations become more intertwined within other cultures and an expectation to assimilate towards Australian culture and the English-speaking mainstream.

Community language schools have grown to become significant educational language providers worldwide. Schools operate as global grassroot initiatives (Liddicoat and Taylor-Leech [2014]. "Micro Language Planning for Multilingual Education: Agency in Local Contexts." "Current Issues in Language Planning" 15 (3): 237-244.), and the last 20 years has seen a steep incline of important research in these schools, exploring their aims, purposes, practices, and how they serve their communities. A sturdy body of research is thus emerging, focussing primarily on schools within large immigrant communities of Asian background. This study aims to contribute to our understanding of the aims and purpose of these schools by drawing on findings from a study situated within with in a smaller, immigrant community. Taking a poststructural approach to language learning, this ethnographic study drew on investment theory (Norton [2010]. "Identity, Literacy, and English-language Teaching." TESL Canada Journal 28 (1): 1-13; [2013]. "Identity and Language Learning: Extending the Conversation." 2nd ed. Bristol: Multilingual Matters; Norton and Toohey [2011]. "Identity, Language Learning, and Social Change." "Language Teaching" 44 (4): 412-446) and in particular imagined communities (Anderson [1983]. Imagined Communities. London: Verso; [1991]. "Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism." Rev ed. New York: Verso) and cultural capital (Bourdieu [1985]. "The Social Space and the Genesis of Groups." "Social Science Information" 24 (2): 195-220) to understand students' reasons for attending a Swedish community language school in Australia. Seven students (aged 12-16) were interviewed. Findings from the thematic analysis that students were able to re-invest their heritage language proficiencies as bilingual markers of distinction, thus liberating themselves from monoglossic ideologies often underpinning these schools (e.g. Blackledge and Creese [2010]. "Multilingualism: A Critical Perspective." London: Continuum).

Studies of student satisfaction in higher education settings highlight the contribution of teaching, learning and assessment, institutional status, and the personal factors of self-efficacy, preparedness, and sense of community. Transnational partnership research has identified that similar student satisfaction factors are experienced by mainland Chinese students enrolled in English-language degrees. However, there are certain challenges related to foreign language skill development, intercultural exchange, and lack of local contextualization. This paper provides insights into the interplay among satisfaction factors in the transnational context of an Australian-China higher education partnership for Chinese students studying a Business degree in their home country. In addition, the paper highlights the value added to the student experience by the expeditious use of local Chinese exemplars and translanguaging across the two languages to explain the more complex concepts presented in the course content. In so doing, the paper sheds some light on the role of local, native speaking staff in the teaching and learning process and their contribution to student satisfaction, a known retention benefit to higher education institutions.

This study examines the reflexivity of immigrant children in forming their language attitudes (LAs). Considering the special cultural environment of the Chinese community in Australia, which refers to the community's well-matched cultural powers with Australia, this research explored Chinese Australian children's conflicting but reflexive LAs and language practices. By drawing on in-depth qualitative interviews and longitudinal participant observations conducted in multiple schools, this study classified Chinese Australian children into four types according to their perceptions and behaviors toward language learning and use and examined each age group's characteristics. The study further analyzed the mutually influential relation between cultural environment, family, immigrant children, and their LAs. These findings shed light on immigrant children's agency in forming and reconfiguring their LAs. This is an important addition to the existing knowledge about bilingual children's language choices, language development, and language education.

Transplanting non-Western religions to Western nations results in first-generation migrant attempts to transmit faith in vastly different contexts. Especially as adolescents, second-generation migrants tackle mediating their personal religious beliefs in a society with diverse religions and ideologies as well as negotiating membership of their ethnoreligious community. This paper draws from an ethnography in a Tamil Hindu temple in Australia. I present Sri Lankan teenage migrants' discourse from their faith classroom to elucidate processes of belief positioning. In working out their emergent, and provisional, faith identities, the students deploy mainly Tamil and English linguistic features in their belief narratives. Flexible languaging complements their "syncretic acts" -- the practice of drawing on diverse ideologies and experiences (outside the boundaries of a particular religion) to form personalized beliefs. Translanguaging thus facilitates the expression of circumspect, nuanced, and non-traditional interpretations of their heritage religion. Understanding such processes of belief positioning can help societies and institutions to work towards migrant youth inclusion.

The 21st century has brought rapid global change to the cultural and linguistic landscape of many nations; this rapidly changing landscape has prompted educators to argue that the lived and evolving reality of contemporary classrooms demands a re-examination of current curriculum, pedagogies and assessment practices. Australian classrooms now include young people who speak many different languages and dialects of English; these young people draw on multiple ways of learning and understanding and are increasingly mobile and connected across time and space. Over the last two decades, rather than building on this linguistic diversity Australia's national assessment program has relegated difference to a problem fixed by further commitment to standardized English curriculum and assessment practices. In this environment, attention is given to what is perceived as limited or lacking in young people's knowledge of the English language and literacies practices most valued in school. This article presents research that aimed to acknowledge and build on the foundational linguistic resources of young people in super-diverse mainstream primary classrooms through the application of visual methodologies (language mapping) and corresponding pedagogical work. This research, undertaken in Western Sydney, one of the most diverse regions in Australia, offers possibilities for perpetuating and fostering a pluralist present and future in 21st century classrooms.

This analysis is but one small fragment of a broader project exploring conceptions of response-able Spanish bilingualism in Australian secondary education. An initial thematic analysis revealed patterns and trends in the data but overlooked the nuanced, subtle differences regarding the ways in which Spanish bilingualism might be entangled with a number of troubling discourses and practices. Drawing inspiration from concepts in decolonial, new material, and sociolinguistic theories, I explore how a diffractive inquiry of my conversations with Spanish as a world language teachers (SWLTs) might attend to the affirmative differences and transgressive data they mention. Through this diffractive inquiry of focus group conversations with SWLTs in Australia, a multitude of response-abilities emerged relating to digital antagonisms in and beyond the classroom, the role of experimental practices in supporting Spanish and other named languages and the capacity for us as researchers to remain mindfully attentive to the generative affects present in this type of data. Hence, such an inquiry presents an opportunity to focus on previously unseen data but also invites all those engaging in critical language inquiries to question their response-abilities as researcher/teacher/learners.

This study explores language learners' motivation from the perspective of vision, a concept that has specifically been identified as one of the next challenges for motivation research. Having conceptualized vision as a powerful motivational component of the language learning process, and focusing on the learner's individual perspective, we employed Q methodology to identify the visions, as imagined here and now, of students' second language (L2) selves. While Q methodology is becoming increasingly popular in applied linguistics, thanks to its ability to offer a scientific and holistic investigation of subjectivity, no study has previously employed it to gain in-depth understanding of how learners of Italian in an Anglophone context envision themselves as future bilingual or multilingual speakers. Students from an Australian university ranked statements related to imagined scenarios of L2 selves, and factor analysis of these ranks exposed 3 motivational profiles: 'the multilingual fan with an edge,' 'the mobile and linguistically competent,' and 'the lover of the Italian culture.' By engaging in new and fresh ways to understand language students and their self-visions, this study contributes to the understanding of motivation and provides a useful tool for comparison for other languages, as well as other institutional and geographical contexts.

In the English-dominated field of L2 motivation, there is a need for more research on learners of languages other than English. This is particularly important in English-speaking countries, where issues involving the recruitment and retention of language students are pressing. This study discusses the main qualitative findings of a study on the motivations and identity aspirations of university students of German in Australia. The findings obtained through a questionnaire (n = 86) are complemented by in-depth interviews conducted with a small sample of respondents (n = 5). The study shows that learners of German are instrumentally, integratively and intrinsically motivated and wish to shape identities as international professionals with unique linguistic skills ("Exotenmotiv," see Riemer 2006), tourists and anti-tourists, bilingual speakers in a monolingual Anglophone context and educated individuals ("Bildungs-Selbst," see Busse 2015). This research furthers our knowledge on this learner population in Australia and, more broadly, on Anglophone elective language learners, as well as students of German as a foreign language in other contexts. It also contributes to our understanding of the link between motivation and processes of identity creation and development.

In contemporary Western societies, parenting has become the subject of a substantial body of advice and self-help literature. Within this literature, questions of bilingual parenting have begun to add yet another dimension to parental anxieties. Against this background, we examine how parents in a general Australian online parenting forum discuss the desires they have for their children's bilingualism and the challenges they experience to their bilingual parenting. We first demonstrate that individual bilingualism in the abstract is discussed in highly favourable terms and is widely conceptualised as a 'gift' from parents to children. However, posters' belief in the bilingual advantage does not easily translate into effective bilingual parenting practices. First, many posters are concerned that bilingualism in the early years might be jeopardising their child's English language proficiency and hence school success. Second, a very narrow definition of 'true' bilingualism is connected with a relatively dogmatic belief in the 'one parent, one language' parenting strategy. As a result, consecutive bilinguals, particularly migrant fathers, come to be perceived as both problematic bilinguals and problematic parents. We close with implications for family language policy and advocacy in the face of entrenched institutional English monolingualism.

An intercultural stance within languages education has been widely embraced within curriculum planning in Australia. Yet prior research has shown that in implementation the stance may not reach its full potential. A key element of an intercultural stance is a focus on reciprocal understanding and "intra"cultural change. Students must reconsider their own identities in order to better understand others, conceptualising themselves as emerging multilinguals may further strengthen this aspect of intercultural stance. In such a stance identity development is a process, identities are constantly evolving and self-awareness is integral to understanding others. While reciprocity, decentring and consideration of 'self' have each been emphasised within intercultural stance, further emphasis upon multilingual identity could deepen the intercultural experience. This paper theorises a multilingual identity approach to intercultural stance in which multilingual identity intersects with intercultural languages education. This approach synthesises the existing literature on identity, "multilingual" identity and intercultural understanding. The key intersections are identified as: "the inter-relationship of language and culture," "imagined identities," "self-concept," "feelings of belonging and consideration of self and others (reflexivity)."

This study investigates the links between the second-generation Chinese Australians' heritage language proficiency and perceptions of Chinese identity. Thirty 10--11-year-old children of Chinese immigrants took a Chinese proficiency test and participated in semi-structured interviews. The test revealed a wide range of performance levels in all the four skills except listening among the Chinese-Australian children. It was found that the high-achieving participants expressed aspirations for attaining high levels of Chinese literacy and identified themselves as being half Australian half Chinese. In contrast, the low-achieving participants showed an inclination to communicate in English only and perceived themselves as mainly Australian. The study suggests, to increase chances of heritage language maintenance and cultivation of a bicultural identity, children need substantial support and access to the various resources, avenues, and opportunities to learn Chinese both at family and community levels. This study is significant in providing empirical evidence for the debate of language and identity while awakening the Chinese diaspora to heritage language maintenance.

Increased attention to urban diversity as a site of study has fostered the recent development of linguistic landscape studies. To date, however, much of the research in this area has concerned the use and spread of English to the exclusion of other global languages. In a case study situated in Box Hill, a large suburb of Melbourne, we adopted a layered approach to investigate the role of Chinese language in Australia. Our data set consisted of hundreds of photographs of street signage in one square block area of the shopping district. Results of our analyses show that signage portrays a variety of code preferences and semiotic choices that in turn reveal insights into the identities, ideologies, and strategies that help to structure the urban environment. As demonstrated in our study, such complexity requires a renewed and situated understanding of key principles of linguistic landscape research (Ben-Rafael & Ben-Rafael, 2015).

Although unevenly distributed, many Australian classrooms are increasingly diverse and include young people from a wide variety of cultural and linguistic backgrounds, young people who speak many different languages and dialects of English. These diverse classrooms offer rich and exciting teaching and learning opportunities and require innovative pedagogies that bolster the abilities of educators to draw upon young peoples' transcultural and translingual competencies. This paper details curricula and pedagogies employed in a classroom with six- to eight-year old children newly arrived in Australia. In this classroom, children were positioned as ethnographers of their own language practices; language repertoires were recognized, validated and treated as resources for learning. Analysis centres on the relevant connections made between academic content, children's experiences and the promotion of children's identities as bilingual meaning-makers.

Linguistic racism is magnified when a speaker is multilingual and shuttles between different languages and language varieties. This reality is underscored in this commentary that reviews four empirical studies that comprise this special issue on linguistic racism. We see linguistic racism enacted in different forms and contexts: through racial microaggressions experienced by students who negotiate the Catalan/Spanish bilingual educational context; instances of racial prejudice encountered by international students at Australian universities; and sociolinguistics pressures placed upon members of an Australian Aboriginal community as they negotiate ratified and denigrated languages and language varieties. My commentary also highlights the need to consider the affective turn in sociolinguistics, in particular, the emotional fallout that often accompanies linguistic racism. Several suggestions on how to combat linguistic racism are also discussed.