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An Australian study examined the relationship between current and past participation in education and training in small business and success or failure and how small businesses decide how to improve knowledge and skills. Telephone surveys were conducted with 181 small businesses in 4 industries in 3 metropolitan and 3 non-metropolitan regions. Findings indicated almost a third of the sample had an employee or owner attend a relevant course in the last 12 months; the largest group of courses attended were technical/production-related vocational education and training (VET); more than a third of the sample had undertaken on-the-job training; more than 80 percent found informal learning sources useful; about half had owners or employees with VET qualifications as their highest qualifications; owners' most common way of learning about their new business was experience or trial and error; successful owners were no more likely to have attended a course at the time they started in the businesses; there were few relationships between business success and recent participation in education and training; businesses that participated in on-the-job training were more likely to be successful; the most frequently given prompt for training was a general desire to improve efficiency; the most frequent reason for choosing a training or learning source was that it provided learning relevant to the business; and successful businesses were likely to be prompted to learn or train. (Contains 27 references.) (YLB)

Much recent debate has suggested Australia's technical and further education (TAFE) teachers not only need new knowledge and skills but need to perform their professional practices in new ways and in new contexts. What this debate has failed to recognize is that these change discourses are in effect constructing new professional identities for teachers, which interact and compete with the traditional discourses that once provided TAFE teachers with a distinct and separate educational identity. Any explanation concerning the construction of TAFE teachers' identities must look to both the historical and contemporary discourses that all circulate within the institutional life of the organization and must indicate how these discourses work to construct TAFE teachers as particular types of teachers. Three dominant institutional discourses within the institution of TAFE have shaped the formation of TAFE teachers' identities: industrial skill development, liberal education, and public service. The discourses of new vocationalism and economic rationalism have now joined the discourses of industrial skill development, liberal education, and public service in constructing the institutional practices of TAFE and its teachers. The failure of these discourses to make headway in changing TAFE teachers' understanding of who they are in VET can be accounted for because they leave little room for ambiguity and contradiction. (Contains 32 references.) (YLB)

Work-based learning (WBL) is one response of education and training institutions to criticisms they have failed to adapt to changing economic times and the changing nature of work. Formal educational institutions are challenged by the perception that they are inadequate to the task of preparing the present and future work force with the necessary knowledge, skills, and dispositions required in post-industrial workplaces; discourses focusing on learning that occurs outside formal educational institutions; and discourses problematizing what counts as knowledge in contemporary society. Potential impact of WBL can be explored by focusing on technical and further education (TAFE) in Australia. TAFE should be a natural home for WBL because it claims an explicit and direct connection with the world of work, but its teachers face an intensifying dilemma in their educational practices, due to their location in an educational institution rather than the workplace and by curriculum practices grounded by notions of content stability, compartmentalization, occupational continuity, and universally applicable outcomes. Differences that distinguish WBL from current vocational education and training (VET) practices relate to the individualization of the learning program and to the multiple sets of relationships that are created between the participating organization, learners, provider, and VET practitioner. (Contains 34 references.) (YLB)

A study analyzed patterns of participation at the local level in adult and community education (ACE) and technical and further education (TAFE) in Melbourne, Australia postcodes. Patterns of participation were hypothesized as being different from those in Sydney, New South Wales, where previous research established the marked differentiation of TAFE and ACE clienteles by postcode of residence. Results of the Melbourne postcode analysis confirmed the broad trend noted in the Sydney studies for TAFE and ACE participation to be differentiated by the socioeconomic status of the postcode. However, the Melbourne participation maps showed a good deal of variability in this broad relationship that needs to be explained. There were also considerable local variations in participation across adjacent postcodes. The general trend was for relatively high rates of participation in TAFE and ACE in most areas; yet they were differentiated to a degree by socioeconomic influences. This complexity was consistent with the marked diversification of VET in Melbourne and a corresponding differentiation of clienteles and services in TAFE and ACE. (Contains 15 references, 3 figures, and 3 tables.) (YLB)

More attention should be given to the local dimension of equity research. A question that must be asked is to what extent there is an unequal distribution of opportunities to participate in vocational education and training (VET) that is mirrored by area of residence in both urban and rural localities. Questions must also be asked about the extent to which relatively advantaged (employed and educated) individuals consume the resources allocated to a locality or region. Local analysis studies the characteristics of participants who live or work in a certain area. The characteristics of VET participants living in a postcode can be compared with the characteristics of that locality in general and with the profile of VET participants in the region or state using a "profiling" methodology. The representation of equity groups in particular areas may be explored by using information about VET participants from AVETMISS and Census mapping software. One conceptual model of VET participation, which is holistic or ecological in character, assumes that participation is a complex product of provider, area, and clientele factors. It suggests these three possible approaches to local equity analysis: area participation, catchment, and provider equity analyses. A study of Sydney postcodes has found that technical and further education is highest in areas where relatively disadvantaged people are living. (Contains 15 references, 3 tables, and 1 figure.) (YLB)

The hypothesis that making judgments is the basis for workplace learning was examined by studying work in a range of occupations with a view to identifying and analyzing the main judgments involved in individuals' work performance. To test the hypothesis, six practicing professionals (three men and three women) were interviewed. Two of interviewees were public servants with division-level responsibilities. The occupations of the other four were as follows: psychiatrist; private school principal; nurse turned ambulance officer; and corporate consultant. During the interviews, the professionals were asked to reflect on the judgments they make in critical work situations. The interviews were recorded, transcribed, and analyzed in the context of theories regarding workplace learning and logic of action. It was concluded that growth in capacity to make judgments is evident in the following abilities and actions: (1) an ability to separate the stage of presentation of the initial need to make a judgment from the stage of the contiguous actualization of that judgment; (2) an ability to "read" the conative, emotive, and ethical considerations in the light of that separability; and (3) the decentering of the practitioner's sense of identity at one of these stages, but not in both of them. (Contains 34 references.) (MN)

This study examined the character of the emerging systems of corporate management in Australian universities and their effects on academic and administrative practices, focusing on relations of power. Case studies were conducted at 17 individual universities of various types. In each institution, interviews were conducted with senior managers/leaders, middle-level academic managers (faculty deans), and a range of other personnel. The study shows that the Australian government has led the change to a performance-based competitive system with a single, standardized system of funding, funds distribution, and measurement of research activity. Study findings are organized under five broad headings: (1) the emergence of a new kind of strategic leader; (2) the eclipse of collegial systems of decision making and the rise of management-controlled "post-collegial" mechanisms for decision making and consultation; (3) changes in research management, with consequent effects on academic work; (4) commonalities and variations in the different New Universities; and (5) changes in universities in the context of developments in public management. Overall, the study found more corporate-style university managements emerging in all institutions. It is concluded that the new research system is creating perverse incentives in academic terms such as the primacy of money income for research over research activities and outputs, the primacy of research quantity over quality, and the tendency to "flatten out" distinctions among the disciplines for administrative purposes. (Contains 13 references.) (DB)

Research into indicators of learning occurring in e-mail discussion groups investigated how to maximize factors that enhance learning and networking using e-mail and how to minimize factors that inhibit learning using this medium. Data from a range of e-mail discussion groups formed the basis of the research, with focus on e-mail discussion that supports informal learning contexts. These three professional development groups were followed: organizational development and learning (Group A), primary and high school administrative issues (Group B), and women's health (Group C). Five days of discussion and three topics per group were analyzed to explore how communication was being mediated and managed. Findings indicated the prevalence of challenge in the interactions among members in all groups. Group A exhibited a consistently positive outcome from the challenges. Features contributing to this outcome included high moderator involvement; a climate of respect, support, and consideration for the other members; minimum of personal attacks; successful clarification processes; and a discussion that progressed and developed. Factors that contributed to an increase in dissonance in Groups B and C and to lack of progress and positive development were individual misunderstandings and misinterpretations of a previous post and spending more time on restating opinions rather than discussion. (Contains 57 references.) (YLB)

A project explored the complex relationships between "integrated" numeracy and literacy skills, self confidence, and the place of skills, knowledge, and values in the learning process. The focus was on beef producers undertaking training in quality assurance (QA). Analysis of observations of QA process on three case study farms and examination of Cattlecare (the QA program developed for the beef industry) manuals suggested skills required to access QA. Findings indicated the following: (1) numeracy skills required for the non-chemical handling parts of Cattlecare were mostly arithmetic; (2) chemical mixing and administration involved more complex tasks; (3) Cattlecare manuals had a higher readability index than farming and popular newspapers and magazines; and (4) many Cattlecare forms were at the more complex end of the structure spectrum. The knowledge required to access QA was identified. These two possible reasons were suggested for failure to proceed with QA: the relatively high level of literacy and numeracy skills required and the high cost of necessary changes and accreditation. Underpinning the whole question of access was that farmers had to first value learning as important. Numerical and literacy activities were not prerequisites for learning about QA. Development of self confidence was shown in the values stage of learning. (Contains 25 references.) (YLB)

A study identified some implicit concepts, knowledge, and skills that a seemingly standard adult literacy and numeracy "lesson" contains. Conversation analysis was used to show instances of how adult numeracy is embedded in adult language and literacy. The "conversation" was a transcript from an adult literacy class for long-term unemployed adult men that began with a recall segment about question and answer patterns. Two types of questions were compared: those occurring "naturally" as part of the "common sense" made during the classroom conversations and those asked as part of the instructional content of the lesson appropriate to the subject matter of mathematics. Analysis showed how language and literate practices in the adult literacy classroom created the reality that adult learners come to recognize as the subjects mathematics or numeracy. Two implications were explored. First, considerable differences between school mathematics and real-life numeracy raised the dilemma of what should be taught. Second, embedding of language with particular sets of valued "content areas" caused teachers to reproduce school-based practices and discourses for adults who had already experienced school failure and implied that literacy and numeracy teachers be trained in language interaction patterns and ways for teachers and adult students to manage them to achieve an identified purpose. (Contains 28 references.) (YLB)

A project has been designed to identify how a non-metropolitan community consolidates and develops sustainable social and economic activity. For many authors, the political position reiterating vocational education and training (VET) as the pivotal contributor to building national economic sustainability is framed in terms of human capital imperatives, economic rationalism, and corporate managerialism. Contemporary research on VET's value or outcomes often focuses on industry outcomes or particular activity rather than value to its wider community. The project would examine whether models of vocational provision constructed to service one sector, as opposed to mutualities of sectors, may mitigate against attempts by non-metropolitan communities to reposition themselves economically and socially in an increasingly globalized economy. A more inclusive definition of VET may be appropriate to more accurately describe the true value of VET activity and its benefits to communities in their quest for economic and social sustainability. The research method combines the focused interview process with open-ended questions. The sample consists of two strata: those employed in 17 industry groupings delineated for benchmarking performance in VET in Australia and those affiliated with community groupings operating in the study community. (Contains 56 references.) (YLB)

A review of research literature relating to vocational education and training (VET) in non-metropolitan Australia identified issues which differentially impact metropolitan and non-metropolitan Australia and research needs. Findings indicated non-metropolitan Australia is diverse in terms of population density, educational experiences of the population, occupation, and industries for employment. Rural people were less likely to have post-school qualifications, participate in post-school education and training, be employed, and be a professional working in manufacturing, property and business services, or finance and insurance. Rural people were more likely to have left school early, be unemployed or out of the labor force, work in small business, be self-employed or an employer, be a laborer or have other low-skilled occupation, and work in agriculture, forestry and fishing, mining, construction, or tourism. The following seven issues demonstrate differential impact or need further research: local involvement in planning; thin markets; cost of training and measurement of cost and effectiveness; flexible delivery; no tradition of VET or history of valuing education; quality and availability of trainers and assessors; and community sustainability, social capital, and the value of VET to communities. (A 59-item bibliography is appended.) (YLB)

A study examined the impact of agricultural education and training on farm business practice and the influence of training on changes to farming practice in Australia. Data were from an additional set of questions on the Australian Bureau of Statistics' 1993-94 Agricultural Financial Survey and an interview survey of 65 Tasmanian farmers. Findings indicated that farm businesses that had no one in the management team with education to year 10 level were least likely to make a change to their practice; 68 percent of farm businesses that participated in training in the past year and 39 percent of non-training farm businesses had made a change to practice in the past 3 years; farm businesses with a low level of education were over-represented in the group that identified no training events as worth attending; 31 percent of farm businesses in the lowest education category and less than 10 percent of farm businesses with higher education attended no training events and planned no training in the next 3 years; farm businesses that trained and made changes to practice had a higher average gross operating surplus; prompts for change were (in descending order of importance) other farmers, training events, family, and staff; and almost two-thirds of Tasmanian participants in three survey classes made at least one change to practice as a result of attending a course. (Contains 41 references.) (YLB)

A case study in a rural Australian township attempted to determine indicators verifying the existence of social capital. Social capital is provisionally defined as the networks, norms, and trust that constitute the capacity of individuals, workplaces, groups, organizations, and communities to strive for sustainable futures in a changing socioeconomic environment. Participants in the study were chosen based on recommendations of community members on who provides them with help, advice, or information. Analysis of interviews, tape-recorded community meetings and interactions, and personal diaries identified three categories of resources that people draw on as they interact with each other: 1) knowledge resources, or the shared knowledge of community, personal, individual, and collective information; 2) identity resources, or the shared understandings of personal, individual, and collective identities; and 3) consolidated resources, the common understanding and familiarity with community assets used reciprocally for mutual benefit. A set of indicators of these resources used in "community interactive productivity" was then developed. Interactive productivity is viewed as the community learning processes by which social capital is created. The terms "community learning" and "capacity building," and the possible causal link between social capital and economic well-being are discussed. (Contains 56 references.) (TD)

Rural communities with populations of under 15,000 are the least resilient to negative economic shocks, but local initiatives can reduce the negative impact of rapid economic change. Data from a study of three rural Australian communities and one "community-of-common-purpose" were used to develop a model of how the informal learning process inherent in community action builds resilient communities. Learning, social capital, and change are interlinked. The model identifies the resources used in the learning process, which are the resources that form the social capital of the community. These social capital resources are: (1) a knowledge of who can provide advice, support, information, and resources; and (2) identity resources, that is, a sense of belonging or willingness to act for the benefit of the community. The model illustrates that social capital is built as it is used. Informal learning interactions help people get to know each other and develop networks. They also build a commitment to the community and people's confidence to act for community benefit. Both quantity and quality of interactions have a role in the development of social capital. Qualitative elements such as shared language, shared experiences, trust, personal development, and identification with the community help build knowledge and identity resources and thus improve the quality of learning interactions. An understanding of the ways in which communities develop and use social capital as they learn will help build resilient rural and regional communities. (Contains 41 references.) (TD)

A holistic approach to evaluating an adult education and training program or service was proposed that is based on consideration of the following: ethics, objectives, stakeholders, coverage, effects, and costs. According to the proposed approach, the following are among the design features of multimedia instruction to be considered before an evaluation: particular mode of technology-assisted learning; method of using technology in the instructional process; social aspects of the instructional process; relationship with other components of training/instruction; hardware requirements; software aspects; assumed learning sequences; medium of presentation of details; extent of interactivity, self-pacing, and self-direction; and subject matter interest. The actual evaluation procedure is a six-step process during which evaluators evaluate a program against the prescribed criteria to ascertain the following: whether the program or service is ethical; the extent to which the program or service covers those who are most in need; the costs, benefits, and utilities of the program or service; whether the program or service achieved its key objective(s); the net effect of the program or service; and the extent to which the perspectives and interests of all stakeholders have been considered and met. (24 endnotes) (MN)

The Career Interest Card Sort is a vocational exploration procedure that was developed for use with adults in employment counseling, vocational guidance, and rehabilitation contexts. The card sort contains seven cards that clients are asked to rank in order of preference. The cards list seven work interests: outdoor, practical, scientific, creative, business, office, and people contact. The vocational interests are described on the reverse side of each card. The card sort is based on three principles: the simplest and most direct assessment approach is best; assessment of vocational interests show the pattern of a person's likes and dislikes and the individual ranking of preferences; and people should be compared to themselves just as much as they should be contrasted to others. The card sort's seven career interest areas correlate to Holland's six vocational types, and its validity was confirmed in a study of its administration by classroom teachers to 879 technical and further education (TAFE) students. Three case studies of the card sort's use in vocational assessment in a rehabilitation context confirmed its value as a coherent basis for exploring any further vocational or avocational areas. (15 references) (MN)

This paper reviews and analyzes the research in rural education in Australia in recent decades. Research undertaken in other countries is examined where comparisons, differences, or explanations are useful in understanding the Australian context. Following an introduction to the Australian education system and summaries of demographic features of rural areas and schools, key concepts emerging from the literature are discussed. These concepts include rurality, isolation and remoteness, rural education, and distance education. The literature review is structured around four major themes. The theme of schooling covers teachers (recruitment, retention, training for rural areas, and affective factors); students (achievement, dropout rate, and education of minority groups); school-community relationships (community participation, school closing, school size, rural lifestyle, and rural school characteristics); and accommodation of rural students in boarding schools. Theme 2, technology, covers geographic isolation, technological innovation, and distance education. Theme 3, educational delivery, encompasses equal educational opportunity, curriculum, decentralization, service delivery, and educational models. Theme 4 examines distinctions between rural education and education in rural areas. This paper concludes with 23 research questions. Recommended research priorities are rural definition, teacher preparation, curriculum design, community participation, access to services, secondary education for isolated students, and educational provision to facilitate gender and cultural equity. Contains over 200 references. (SV)

This paper was developed to present to the Technical and Further Educatoin (TAFE) Department in New South Wales alternative approaches to curriculum development to assist the department in choosing an appropriate approach that will meet the current and future needs for an efficient, effective, and streamlined curriculum development process. The paper was used as a resource document for a 2-day workshop. It: (1) describes briefly the methods used in the curriculum study and identifies the sources of information; (2) places the curriculum development approaches proposed in context by providing an overview of these processes in general and those used currently in New South Wales in particular (five practices are discussed--import, in-house, project, contract, and multimodel); (3) provides a suggested framework for good curriculum practice in order to consider any potential approaches; and (4) proposes potential approaches (especially the contract model) to curriculum development and raises a series of related issues for consideration at the workshop. The paper was to be used along with the workshop as a beginning to provide a basis for reforming the curriculum development processes used by TAFE in New South Wales to meet its emerging needs. The document includes 44 references. Appendices include the project proposal, a list of persons interviewed, and the interview questionnaire. (KC)

This paper proposes a framework for developing a national rural development policy in Australia. Some common relevant misconceptions are that rural Australia and rural Australians are peripheral to the national economy and the nation's future, that farmers and farming communities are the alpha and omega of rural Australia, and that whatever is best for the agricultural industry is also best for rural Australia as a whole. These misconceptions about rurality have resulted in public policies and programs that overlook the needs of the nonfarm population, the majority of Australia's rural population. Three major forms of government intervention--industry support policies and subsidies, government-supplied income for individuals, and social policies and programs--have not been sufficient to ensure a secure and prosperous rural future. The present rural crisis involves the radical decoupling of the fate of primary industries from the fate of traditional primary producers; the unwillingness of government to seriously support rural Australia's latent economic diversity; and complacency that has allowed the long-standing combination of industrial and social policies/programs to function as a de facto rural development strategy. A new rural development policy should give priority to a growing rural population base, ensure that rural people and communities reap an equitable share of the rewards derived from rural resources, account for a growing and diversifying rural economic base, encourage a growing rural employment base, strive for improved quality of rural life, and develop stronger, more cohesive rural communities. Key alliances within and across rural communities, between rural communities and governments, between the public and private sectors, and across the urban-rural divide will be important in initiating activities involving empowerment, environment, entrepreneurship, and education. Contains 90 references. (LP)

This study examined the role of faculty participation on strategic change within higher education. An open-ended questionnaire was completed by seven individuals from Singapore and the United States who had had experience with higher education strategic planning and change as both faculty and administrators in Australia, Canada, Singapore, and the United States. It was found that all of the respondents agreed on the necessity of involving stakeholders, particularly the faculty, in strategic change. Many also pointed to the difficulty of getting quality participation from faculty, due to the fact that faculty often have a narrow perspective, that faculty participation involves a large commitment of time, and that faculty are often reluctant to address complex issues or problems. Respondents emphasized the negative impact of overly hierarchical and bureaucratic organizational structures, which were more typical in Singapore than elsewhere. The comments also emphasized the impact that organizational culture, planning processes, reward structures, and institutional mission can have on faculty participation in strategic change. Suggestions for encouraging and improving faculty participation were also offered. (Contains 32 references.) (MDM)

Research tested the hypothesis that preemployment vocational education is a major contributor to enterprise productivity, because it raises workers' skills that are then applied in more effective work practices. An intercountry comparisons approach involving Britain and Germany and Britain and the Netherlands or France identified medium-sized establishments that produced similar products and compared and contrasted the following: worker productivity; management styles and practices; technologies used; workplace organization; on-the-job training; level and type of vocational qualifications of workers; and curriculum content relating to the qualifications. Findings were as follows: the average productivity of the British enterprises was below that of their counterparts; percentages of British personnel holding intermediate qualifications were much lower; in contrast to British manufacturing, German manufacturing was withdrawing from producing bulk quantities of standard goods; German companies were more inclined to use numerically controlled machinery; and machine breakdowns were rare in Germany, but common in Britain. The different productivity levels were also due to workers' capabilities, which could be explained as a consequence of differences in work preparation. Implications for Australia were to emphasize skilling to increase productivity in customized, high-quality products; to develop technological competence; and to implement rigorous student assessment. (Contains 46 references.) (YLB)

A substantial amount of money is spent on technology by schools, families and policymakers with the hope of improving educational outcomes. This paper explores the theoretical and empirical literature on the impacts of technology on educational outcomes. The literature focuses on two primary contexts in which technology may be used for educational purposes: i) classroom use in schools, and ii) home use by students. Theoretically, ICT investment and CAI use by schools and the use of computers at home have ambiguous implications for educational achievement: expenditures devoted to technology necessarily offset inputs that may be more or less efficient, and time allocated to using technology may displace traditional classroom instruction and educational activities at home. However, much of the evidence in the schooling literature is based on interventions that provide supplemental funding for technology or additional class time, and thus favor finding positive effects. Nonetheless, studies of ICT and CAI in schools produce mixed evidence with a pattern of null results. Notable exceptions to this pattern occur in studies of developing countries and CAI interventions that target math rather than language. In the context of home use, early studies based on multivariate and instrumental variables approaches tend to find large positive (and in a few cases negative) effects while recent studies based on randomized control experiments tend to find small or null effects. Early research focused on developed countries while more recently several experiments have been conducted in developing countries.

This paper presents a comprehensive analysis of the link between age and proficiency in information-processing skills, based on information drawn from the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). The data reveal significant age-related differences in proficiencies, strongly suggesting that proficiency tends to "naturally" decline with age. Age differences in proficiency are, at first sight, substantial. On average across the OECD countries participating in PIAAC, adults aged 55 to 65 score some 30 points less than adults aged 25 to 34 on the PIAAC literacy scale, which is only slightly smaller than the score point difference between tertiary educated and less-than-upper-secondary educated individuals. However, despite their lower levels of proficiency, older individuals do not seem to suffer in terms of labour market outcomes. In particular, they generally earn higher wages, and much of the available empirical evidence suggests that they are not less productive than younger workers. Older and more experienced individuals seem therefore able to compensate the decline in information processing skills with the development of other skills, generally much more difficult to measure. On the other hand, proficiency in information-processing skills remain a strong determinant of important outcomes at all ages: this makes it important to better understand which factors are the most effective in preventing such age-related decline in proficiency, which does not occur to the same extent in all countries and for all individuals. Two broad interventions seem to be particularly promising in this respect. First, it is important to ensure that there is adequate and effective investment in skills development early in the life-cycle: as skills beget skills, starting off with a higher stock of human capital seems also to ensure smaller rates of proficiency decline. Second, it is equally important that policies are in place that provide incentives to individuals (and firms) to invest in skills across the entire working life. In this respect, changes in retirement policies can not only have the short-term effect of providing some reliefs to public finance, but have the potential to radically reshape incentives to stay active, to practice their skills and to invest more in training, thus helping to maintain high levels of proficiency. One table, Age Differences and Age Effects, is appended.

Over the past few years the question of whether the lecture is an effective teaching method has been one of the most heatedly debated topics in the field of higher education. While research on the effectiveness of lectures has been carried out since at least the 1960s, the value of the lecture has been increasingly questioned recently for a number of reasons that include waning lecture attendance rates by students, the heightened emphases on active learning and interactive modes of teaching, and technological advances that allow for the instructional component of lectures to be delivered online. The recent discussions on the lecture are often driven by passionate opinions and tend to depict the lecture either at its very worst or as a romantic ideal. In this paper the authors try to move beyond the polarised and often polemical perspectives that characterise the debates and consider both the potential problems and the possible pedagogical benefits of the lecture. They propose that the lecture remains a valuable teaching method for both practical and pedagogical reasons. However, the authors also suggest that in many cases lectures need to be improved and their scope broadened to incorporate more dialogic, active and interactive teaching and learning approaches. Recent descriptions of lecture practices suggest that in many institutions the lecture has already evolved beyond the traditional idea of a unidirectional monologue and that the lecture format is becoming increasingly interactive (Dawson, 2015; Palaima, 2014). It is also important that lectures are used in combination with a range of other teaching methods to provide flexibility and diversity for students as well as to enhance their learning. Thus, while the lecture remains a useful mode of teaching, the authors suggest that more innovative approaches to lecturing as well as alternatives to lectures are needed to adapt to a changing educational environment.

The expansion of higher education in the 1960s from an elite to a mass activity has led inevitably to a demand that higher education be responsive and accountable to the wider community. There are several approaches to evaluation of quality and economic effectiveness in higher education institutions and programs. In the mid-1980s, Australia's Commonwealth Government initiated a series of discipline reviews, as part of an ongoing process of the evaluation of higher education. This paper discusses the discipline review approach to evaluation, in the context of the Discipline Review of Australian Law Schools. It considers the following aspects of the Law School review: the objectives of the Commonwealth discipline reviews, the assessment of quality, the assessment of economic efficiency, responsiveness to community needs, and responses to the law discipline review itself. Appendices provide data on the expansion rates of students in higher education and results from a survey of law students concerning their rating of a law course and the law school. Contains 18 references. (Author/GLR)

This paper examines some of the factors currently shaping graduate coursework in legal education in Australia. There is some suggestion that the undergraduate law degree is likely to become more generalized and that specialization will occur at the graduate level with professional registration to follow. The shift from the somewhat insular and self-regulating culture of the Australian law school to a powerful mix of a state and market controlled environment has occurred in a very short space of time. The impact of graduate studies programs on the undergraduate degree is yet to be assessed as graduate courses become significant sources of income, differentiation, and status for the established schools. Developments in legal education open up several issues needing to be addressed: (1) the direct or indirect influence of the profession on legal education; (2) access to the legal profession in a mass higher education system; and (3) the question of who owns the curriculum. An appendix provides a list of the graduate courses offered at the Universities of Adelaide and Melbourne between 1987 and 1993. Contains 14 references. (GLR)

This paper reviews participation patterns of migrants, refugees, and permanent residents with language backgrounds other than English (LBOTE), at Australian universities in general, and the University of Melbourne in particular. It critically examines the effectiveness of current measures designed to improve the opportunities and university experiences of LBOTE students. Finally, the educational outcomes of this target group are considered in an attempt to establish whether equity policies actually facilitate equality in the case of LBOTE university students and what indicators can be used to gauge the effects of these policies. The report has four main findings: (1) it is important not to treat LBOTE people as a single set when considering the disadvantages they may experience and to maintain disaggregated data on these groups; (2) academic difficulties are caused both by language barriers and culturally-dissonant learning styles as well as the specific social pressures faced by the target groups; (3) students have difficulty accessing specialist provisions due to an overall fragmentation of equity initiatives between institutions, and sometimes within them; and (4) there is a dearth of documentation on the outcomes experienced by the target groups. Findings show that obstacles posed by conflicts between LBOTE students' home and educational cultures and by having to develop proficiency in academic language skills and adapt to new learning styles are disadvantages to many of these students. Contains 35 references. (GLR)

Recent changes to the student profile in higher education and calls for improved graduation rates and better quality graduates have caused consternation among academics. Greater access to higher education by non-traditional groups is supported both ideologically and pragmatically. However, the disparate needs of such a student population has led to concern about the capacities of institutions and individual staff and students to meet the simultaneous calls for accountability. This paper argues for student support centers to assist transition to, and progress through, a course of study. A pedagogical stance appropriate for underpinning the operations of such a center is suggested, and the practical implications of the pedagogy are considered. Two propositions are discussed. First, initiatives which have led to the expansion of the student profile in higher education should be complemented by the provision of appropriate programs which assist students to meet the demands of study at the higher education level. Second, the approaches used by student support centers are critical for non-traditional students in linking educational access to academic success. Developing a cogent pedagogy to underpin the operations of these centers is essential, or else the services provided are likely to be ad hoc and consequently, much less efficient and effective. Contains 51 references. (Author/GLR)

This paper provides an account of individual and collective academic values under the pressure of government policy for social equity in selective admissions at one Australian university. A survey of faculty (N=93) from Law, Social Work, Science, and Architecture identified their goals related to the goals of the university and fairness in selective admissions. At a level of generality, the faculty in the sample could comfortably entertain values of both equity and excellence. They generally shared a preference for academic excellence but not at any price. Seventy-two percent of the sample agreed that the goal of student selection should be directed to maintaining academic values and excellence in courses. Although 54 percent of the sample agreed that higher education should be seen as an investment in the productive capacity of individuals, only 43 percent agreed that universities should select those students most likely to contribute productively to society. Faculty across the disciplines were in favor of some form of positive discrimination for disadvantaged groups. (Contains 17 reference notes.) (GLR)

The current approach to promoting educational equity in universities in Australia is substantially flawed. Through the "equity framework," the Australian university community sector has been compelled to involvement with educational equity through government pressure that has included financial incentives and legislation. Six groups have been identified as disadvantaged: people from socio-economically disadvantaged backgrounds, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, women, non-English speakers, people with disabilities, and people from rural or remote areas. To date, the basis for promoting educational equity in Australian universities has been overly reliant on compulsion, as expressed through pressure from government or legislation; and on arguments of social justice which generate more debate than commitment. University planners should promote educational equity based on its importance to the future social and economic development of Australia. Such considerations stress examination of an organization's mission and purpose within the society which it serves. (Contains 55 references.) (Author/JLS)

This is an analysis of the findings from three comparable national studies of current change in the provision of initial teacher education. These three studies are: the Mode of Teacher Education (MOTE) survey, covering England and Wales; the Research about Teacher Education (RATE) Project, covering the United States; and the Study of Initial Teacher Education (SITE), covering Australia. Each of the studies examines comparable issues and identifies a range of common policy strategies being pursued by the respective governments. There appears to be a global move toward educational reform. Many countries are dismantling centralized educational structures and replacing them with systems having local institutional autonomy and control. These are often linked to an increased emphasis on parental choice and competition between institutions for students. These changes are leading to a market model of educational services. There is more encouragement of the growth of different types of schools, responsive to local needs and particular communities and interest groups. This trend is also linked to growing notions of cultural pluralism as schools shift from a modern to postmodern model. (Contains 39 references.) (JLS)

Over the past twenty years, universities have increasingly employed credit-­based modular curriculum structures in an attempt to cater to the needs of more diverse student groups and to allow students greater flexibility and choice in managing their studies. With the increasing pressures placed on Australian universities to better support teaching and learning while also creating greater efficiency, the possibility of adopting modularised course structures is likely to emerge as an issue facing higher education institutions in this country. It is therefore timely and relevant to examine the possibilities and challenges that modularisation presents. This paper outlines the background and rationale behind modularisation of university curricula and discusses both the potential benefits and possible disadvantages of modular course structures.

As Australia recognized the need for a better educated and highly trained workforce, national attention focused on secondary and post-secondary education and vocational training, with an emphasis on the acquisition of basic, entry level work skills. Because the foundations for success at this level are laid at an early age, however, the Schools Council sought to address issues of importance to the crucial beginning years of education with a project called The Compulsory Years of Schooling. This report elaborates on some of the issues relevant to the early childhood years in schools. The paper asserts that children five to eight years of age need educational programs that have been specifically designed for them and teachers who have been trained to work with young children. Although the style of teaching throughout primary school is gradually changing, teachers are encouraged to adopt developmentally appropriate practice with their youngest children. The report also proposes that early childhood teacher training should be largely separate from the discipline-oriented primary and secondary teacher education courses, and offer narrower specialization within the early childhood range. Improvement in early childhood education also depends upon the ability of the early childhood field as a whole to find its voice and advocate for good practice in all early childhood programs. Contains approximately 95 references. (TJQ)

This paper offers a broad look at accreditation and quality assurance in higher education and how these issues are addressed around the world. Section 1 is an overview of accreditation and addresses the aims and objectives of accreditation, standards, accreditation bodies, stages of the accreditation process, the quality of that process, the role of government in the accreditation process, some critical points of view concerning the process, and present accreditation trends. Section 2 looks at accreditation and quality assurance through brief national case studies. The nations represented are France, Germany, United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Sweden, the United States, China, India, Hong Kong, South Africa, Nigeria, Kenya, and Australia. This section closes with a section comparing accreditation and quality assurance in various regions. Section 3 takes a closer and more detailed look at the accreditation process in Romania, particularly in light of the recent political and educational changes in this nation and the fairly recent decision to introduce accreditation of institutions of higher education. This examination covers accreditation principles and objectives, standards for initial and subsequent accreditation, application rules, structure of the accreditation committee and its functions, and provisions for financing accreditation. Appendixes contain institutional evaluation standards and a glossary. (Contains 27 references.) (JB)