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Recent scholarship has focused on socio-economic trends concerning rural degradation, urbanisation and the sustainable use of natural resources. This article draws on these studies to focus on rural Africa, its projected poverty levels, and the institutional role in relation to these estimates. It uses vulnerability theory, progressive property theory and resilient property theory to reframe rural property as an asset of resilience for both communities and the state, arguing that property is being institutionalized across rural Africa to serve political interests, backed by global demands, at the cost of local communities, and their resiliency needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rate of adoption of mobile technologies in Africa's developing countries is amongst the highest in the world and by 2005 there may be almost 100 billion mobile users in Africa (Keegan, 2002; Brown, 2005). This is just one of the reasons why servicing distance students in this country through m-learning support tools should enjoy consideration. At the Unit for Distance Education at the University of Pretoria most of our students are from remote rural areas in South Africa where there is very little infrastructure for access, yet most have mobile phones. We started using Short Message Services (SMSs) for basic administrative support during 2002 in three existing teacher training programmes for inservice teachers offered by this unit. Recently we have begun preliminary research on the use of SMSs for academic learning support purposes. We are currently running a second exploratory pilot project in one of our modules where four asynchronous academic SMS learning support tools have been introduced. The purpose of this research is to explore how adult learners, registered at UP's Unit for Distance Education, experience the academic short message service as a learning support tool, for a specific module. The first pilot ran from October 2004 and ended in April 2005 and the second runs from April 2005 to October 2005. This article aims to describe our experiences with SMS technologies in the hope that we can contribute towards delivering quality m-learning interventions to student populations previously excluded from the e-learning environment.

Megaherbivores play a critical role in the ecology of African savannas and grasslands. In addition, these systems are forecast to experience more frequent and severe droughts as a product of changes in the global climate. Thus, the continued conservation of megaherbivores and their associated ecosystems will require a better understanding of how megaherbivores respond to drought by shifting their movement, diet and social behaviour. We address this need by investigating the factors affecting changes in the abundance of common hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius; hereafter: 'hippos') throughout the six major rivers of Kruger National Park, South Africa, during and following the severe drought of 2015/2016. Specifically, we aimed to understand the role of two environmental characteristics that have relevance to hippos and that changed in response to drought: vegetation condition and the extent of pooled surface water. In addition, we investigated the extent to which pre‐drought density affected changes in hippo abundance. Although vegetation and daytime refugia both appeared to influence pre‐drought hippo abundance, these factors were less important to the change in hippo abundance related to the drought. Instead, the response to drought was most strongly related to the pre‐drought abundance of hippos, where river segments supporting more than 50 individuals prior to the drought in 2015 decreased by more than half on average. Furthermore, we show that the degree of aggregation decreased from 2015 to 2016 because of the drought, but then began to increase again as the rains returned in 2017. Our results suggest that in addition to the large pools that support large aggregations of hippos in typical years, additional smaller pools are likely important for accommodating this drought‐induced dispersion. However, maintaining this distribution of pools will likely become more challenging as southern Africa's population and water demands increase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Large parts of southern Africa are influenced by extra-tropical weather systems for most of the year. During late summer (December–March), the circulation over the area becomes distinctly tropical. This paper introduces the Africáne, a synoptic scale tropical low-pressure system which has been shown to cause widespread and heavy rainfall over the southern sub-continent of Africa. The frequency of occurrence of Africánes, their contribution to rainfall and interannual variability are discussed in this paper. Africánes occur most frequently at the longitude of the Caprivi area with a second peak in frequency at around 32.5° E. They mostly occur over Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe and only infrequently infiltrate as far south as the borders of South Africa. However, when they do occur over South Africa, they cause widespread heavy rainfall and floods. Rainfall is mostly confined to the eastern flank of Africánes and between 20 and 35% of the annual rainfall over southern Africa in late summer can be attributed to these systems. There are two main synoptic regimes associated with Africánes: a westerly wave or tropical-temperature trough combines with the Africáne to pull rainfall southwards into South Africa. The second, is a mid-level subtropical high pressure, located south of the Africáne, which causes the rainfall to be confined to the north. The interannual variability of Africánes are closely linked to rainfall over southern Africa, such that an above normal number of Africánes in a season causes above normal rainfall over southern Africa. The number of Africánes that form per year is linked to El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO). It is recommended that the predictability of Africánes on different time scales should be investigated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: To analyze worldwide practices regarding the initiation of oral feeding after total laryngectomy (TL). Methods: Online survey. Results: Among the 332 responses received, 278 from 59 countries were analyzed. Our results showed that 45.6% of respondents started water and 45.1% started liquid diet between postoperative days 7 and 10. Semi‐solid feeds were initiated between days 10 and 14 for 44.9% of respondents and a free diet was allowed after day 15 for 60.8% of respondents. This timing was significantly delayed in cases of laryngo‐pharyngectomy and after prior radiotherapy (p < 0.001). A greater proportion of respondents in Africa and Oceania allowed early oral feeding before day 6 as compared with the rest of the world (p < 0.001). Conclusion: Despite increasing number of publications, there is still a lack of evidence to support early oral feeding. The majority of respondents preferred to delay its initiation until at least 7 days after surgery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The recent court judgment of Uzani Environmental Advocacy CC v BP Southern Africa (Pty) Ltd 2019 (5) SA 275 (GP) found BP Southern Africa (Pty) Ltd (BP) guilty of environmental offences. The Court held that BP commenced with listed activities related to upgrades and construction work of filling stations without the necessary environmental authorisations (EAs) required by the National Environmental Management Act 107 of 1998 (NEMA) and the Environmental Conservation Act 73 of 1989 (ECA). Section 24 G of NEMA, however, allows for the rectification of the unlawful commencement or continuation of a listed activity conducted in the absence of the required EAs. Section 24 G therefore permits the ex post facto legalising or retrospective authorisation of the unlawful acts. In the case at hand, BP was found guilty, despite having applied for an ex post facto authorisation. This paper engages with the arguments put forward by the court, reflects on insights brought about by the foreign law, and provides possible recommendations for the retrospective environmental authorisation regime in South Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Banana is an important food crop and source of income in Africa. Sustainable production of banana, however, is at risk because of pests and diseases such as Fusarium wilt, caused by the soil-borne fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc). Foc can be disseminated from infested to disease-free fields in plant material, water and soil. Early detection of Foc using DNA technologies is thus required to accurately identify the fungus and prevent its further dissemination with plants, soil and water. In this study, quantitative (q)PCR assays were developed for the detection of Foc Lineage VI strains found in central and eastern Africa (Foc races 1 and 2), Foc TR4 (vegetative compatibility groups (VCG) 01213/16) that is present in Mozambique, and Foc STR4 (VCG 0120/15) that occurs in South Africa. A collection of 127 fungal isolates were selected for specificity testing, including endophytic Fusarium isolates from banana pseudostems, non-pathogenic F. oxysporum strains and Foc isolates representing the 24 VCGs in Foc. Primer sets that proved to be specific to Foc Lineage VI, Foc TR4 and Foc STR4 were used to produce standard curves for absolute quantification, and the qPCR assays were evaluated based on the quality of standard curves, repeatability and reproducibility, and limits of quantification (LOQ) and detection (LOD). The qPCR assays for Foc Lineage VI, TR4 and STR4 were repeatable and reproducible, with LOQ values of 10−3–10−4 ng/μL and a LOD of 10−4–10−5 ng/μL. The quantitative detection of Foc strains in Africa could reduce the time and improve the accuracy for identifying the Fusarium wilt pathogen from plants, water and soil on the continent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sesotho is an indigenous cereal-based fermented drink traditionally produced in the mountain kingdom of Lesotho, Southern Africa. The present study sought to examine the microbial (bacterial and fungal) community composition of Sesotho at five fermentation stages in five different locations. Using culture-independent (Illumina sequencing) techniques it was found that the bacterial communities followed similar successional patterns during the fermentation processes, regardless of geographical location and recipe variation between breweries. The most abundant bacterial taxa belonged to the phyla Firmicutes (66.2% of the reads on average) and Proteobacteria (22.1%); the families Lactobacillaceae (54.9%), Enterobacteriaceae (14.4%) and Leoconostrocaceae (8.1%); and the genera Lactobacillus (54%), Leuconostoc (10.7%), Leptotrichia (8.5%), and Weissella (5.5%). Most fungal taxa were from the phyla Ascomycota (60.7%) and Mucoromycota (25.3%); the families Rhizopodaceae (25.3%), Nectriaceae (24.2%), Saccharomycetaceae (16%) and Aspergillaceae (6.7%); and the genera Rhizopus (25.3%), Saccharomyces (9.6%), and Aspergillus (2.5%). Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) such as Enterococcus , Pediococcus , Lactobacillus , Leuconostoc , and Wiesella ; as well as yeasts belonging to the genus Saccharomyces , were dominant in all breweries during the production of Sesotho. Several pathogenic and food spoilage microorganisms (e.g., Escherichia , Shigella , Klebsiella , etc.) were also present, but the study demonstrated the safety potential of the Sesotho fermentation process, as these microbial groups decline throughout Sesotho production. The functional profiles of the different brewing steps showed that the process is dominated by chemoheterotrophic and fermentative metabolisms. This study reveals, for the first time, the complex microbial dynamics that occur during Sesotho production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal of this research was to investigate the determinants that influence foreign tourism arrivals to the African continent, firstly as a collective and secondly in different regions, with the aim to foster a greater understanding of how African countries and regions can grow their tourism economies. Using static and dynamic panel estimators, two key findings were identified from this research: (1) tourism to the continent is influenced by income in developed countries, prices, telecommunication infrastructure and geographical factors as well as conservation efforts and (2) the regions in Africa do not all react the same to changes in these factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The KhoiSan of southern Africa have used fermented Sceletium tortuosum preparations to induce psychoactive effects for centuries. It is claimed that the fermentation process changes the alkaloid composition, thereby increasing the potency of the psychoactive response. In this study, a validated ultra performance liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry method was used to quantify the content of alkaloids prior to, and after the controlled fermentation of samples of S. tortuosum. The results revealed that, despite only a slight change in the mesembrenol and mesembranol content during fermentation, the mesembrine content increased significantly from not detected – 1.6 μg/mL to 7.40–20.8 μg/mL. A corresponding decrease was found in the initial mesembrenone content of 8.00–33.0 μg/mL to 1.30–32.7 μg/mL after fermentation. The total alkaloid content also increased as a result of fermentation. • The difference of alkaloid profiles of unfermented and fermented Sceletium tortuosum sample was investigated. • The content of the alkaloid composition following fermentation was quantified using validated UPLC-PDA method. • The mesembrine content increased significantly and the mesembrenone content reduced after fermentation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Around the world, domestic and regional travel is considered the backbone of the tourism industry, with as much as 80% of international visitors within the same region, however, various factors permit or deter tourists to move around freely. The arguments of tourism promoting trade and vice versa, are both valid. Since trade can promote tourism in Africa it implies that regional integration is necessary to foster regional tourism. Aim: This article seeks to determine whether trade theory is able to explain intra-African tourism. This was done by applying four theoretical models of international trade to bilateral African tourism flows. Method: Using panel data from 25 African countries over a 10-year period, this research shows that intra-African tourism flows can best be explained by the gravity theory. Results: Cultural and geographic proximity, as well as the development of the destination country, dictates intra-African tourism. Additionally, African countries that already have an advantage in worldwide tourism receipts also benefit from intra-African tourism. Conclusion: This research contributes to a greater understanding of the determinants that attract African travellers to other African countries, which holds important implications for both policymakers and destination managers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given the need for legislation to protect internally displaced persons, African Heads of State and Government adopted the Convention on the Protection and Assistance of Internally Displaced Persons in Africa in Kampala in October 2009. The convention, which entered into force on 6 December 2012, is an important binding instrument on internal displacement. Article 10 of the convention requires states to prevent displacement caused by development projects, including climate-based development projects. This article examines the content of this obligation within the context of climate-based development projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A marked decline in the gold recovery factor of ore from the Moab Khotsong mine, treated through the Great Noligwa recovery plant, prompted a detailed geometallurgical characterisation of the Vaal Reef A-facies conglomerate at the Moab Khotsong mine. This paper serves to document the results of the investigation. Six samples of the Vaal Reef A-facies were collected in-situ from the underground operations at Moab Khotsong mine for mineralogical study and metallurgical tests. Laboratory scale leaching tests for gold (cyanide) and uranium (sulphuric acid) were carried out using dissolution conditions similar to that in use at the Great Noligwa treatment plant, followed by further diagnostic leaching in the case of gold. The gold in the ore is readily leachable with plant recoveries ranging between 89 and 93%. Additional recovery can be achieved through leaching at excess cyanide conditions, for a recovery of 92 to 97%. In addition to this, the recovery of gold can be further enhanced through the pre-treatment of the milled ore with acid prior to cyanidation i.e. the 'reverse gold leach' in which uranium is recovered first through acid leaching, followed by cyanidation for gold. The leach-based recovery of uranium varies between 30 and 64%. This is well correlated with the abundance of brannerite, which is known to be relatively refractory compared to uraninite. However a substantial amount of uranium is also contained in coffinite which leaches faster than brannerite (but more slowly than uraninite). Dissolution of coffinite and thus enhanced uranium recovery may be accelerated by increasing the oxidation-reduction potential of the leach, as well as raising the temperature at which the leaching is conducted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnopharmacological relevance The genus Warburgia (Canellaceae) is represented by several medicinal trees found exclusively on the African continent. Traditionally, extracts and products produced from Warburgia species are regarded as important natural African antibiotics and have been used extensively as part of traditional healing practices for the treatment of fungal, bacterial and protozoal infections in both humans and animals. We here aim to collate and review the fragmented information on the ethnobotany, phytochemistry and biological activities of ethnomedicinally important Warburgia species and present recommendations for future research. Materials and methods Peer-reviewed articles using “ Warburgia ” as search term (“all fields”) were retrieved from Scopus, ScienceDirect, SciFinder and Google Scholar with no specific time frame set for the search. In addition, various books were consulted that contained botanical and ethnopharmacological information. Results The ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry and biological activity of Warburgia are reviewed. Most of the biological activities are attributed to the drimane sesquiterpenoids, including polygodial, warburganal, muzigadial, mukaadial and ugandensial, flavonoids and miscellaneous compounds present in the various species. In addition to anti-infective properties, Warburgia extracts are also used to treat a wide range of ailments, including stomach aches, fever and headaches, which may also be a manifestation of infections. The need to record anecdotal evidence is emphasised and conservation efforts are highlighted to contribute to the protection and preservation of one of Africa׳s most coveted botanical resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article focuses on the interaction between feminist debates and music. It explores the way in which two musical texts, representing different musical genres and different racial and social contexts, confront issues of gender and sexuality by redefining instances of gender stereotyping. The argument is put forward that music may offer poignant insights into feminine subjectivity, reflecting the challenge and transformation of gender-related boundaries. It is argued that the musical text, in all its richness and ambiguity, is often a contested site of constructing meaning, and deserves close and critical scrutiny. The two musical texts discussed in this paper bring to the fore a circular relationship between ideology and representation in which each can create and reinforce the other. This means that musical texts have the potential to ‘speak back’, and to work against the grain of the power relations they unmask. Taking this position as a point of departure in a more general discussion of female resistance in recent forms of African popular music, difference is read as a source of power, which can function in musically nuanced ways as a form of public struggle against male domination – even though this may not always be obvious on first hearing. The paper culminates with a consideration of a long-standing trope in both European and African culture in which music is understood to be ‘a woman’. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

A solid stream of cases have been submitted to the quasi-judicial and judicial treaty monitoring bodies making up the African regional human rights system, namely the African Commission, the African Children's Rights Committee and the African Human Rights Court, and also to sub-regional courts in Africa. Allowing amicus curiae briefs to supplement the parties' pleadings can enhance the soundness of the factual and legal findings of these bodies, especially given their institutional and practical constraints. Thus far, the use of amicus curiae interventions before the African regional human rights bodies has been negligible. In order to ensure greater participation by amici, this article suggests that the possibility of amicus intervention should be unequivocally provided for under each of the applicable legal regimes, that the grounds for accepting or rejecting interventions should be clearly articulated, and that access to information about pending cases should be provided routinely. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Abstract: Ethnopharmacological relevance: Ethnobotanical reports on more than 100 southern African medicinal plants with dermatological relevance have been highlighted, yet there is still limited scientific data to support claims for their antimicrobial effectiveness against skin pathogens. Guided by ethnobotanical data, this paper explores the antimicrobial efficacies of southern African medicinal plants used to treat skin ailments. Aim of the study: To investigate the antimicrobial properties of southern African medicinal plants against dermatologically relevant pathogens. The study also aimed at providing a scientific rationale for the traditional use of plant combinations to treat skin diseases and the isolation of the bio-active compound from the most active species, Aristea ecklonii (Iridaceae). Materials and methods: Organic and aqueous extracts (132) were prepared from 47 plant species and screened for antimicrobial properties against dermatologically relevant pathogens using the micro-titre plate dilution method. Four different plant combinations were investigated for interactive properties and the sum of the fractional inhibitory concentration (ƩFIC) calculated. Isobolograms were used to further investigate the antimicrobial interactive properties of Pentanisia prunelloides combined with Elephantorrhiza elephantina at varied ratios. A bioactivity-guided fractionation process was adopted to fractionate the organic leaf extract of Aristea ecklonii. Results: Plants demonstrating notable broad-spectrum activities (MIC values ≤1.00mg/ml) against the tested pathogens included extracts from Aristea ecklonii, Chenopodium ambrosioides, Diospyros mespiliformis, Elephantorrhiza elephantina, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Gunnera perpensa, Harpephyllum caffrum, Hypericum perforatum, Melianthus comosus, Terminalia sericea and Warburgia salutaris. The organic extract of Elephantorrhiza elephantina, a plant reportedly used to treat acne vulgaris, demonstrated noteworthy antimicrobial activity (MIC value of 0.05mg/ml) against Propionibacterium acnes. Similarly, Diospyros mespiliformis reported for its traditional use to treat ringworm, also displayed noteworthy antimicrobial activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes (MIC 0.10mg/ml) and Microsporum canis (MIC 0.50mg/ml). The aqueous root extracts of Pentanisia prunelloides combined (1:1) with Elephantorrhiza elephantina displayed synergistic interactions (ƩFIC values 0.31–0.38) against Staphylococcus aureus, gentamycin–methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis and Candida albicans. Fractionation of Aristea ecklonii resulted in the isolation of the known bio-active compound, plumbagin, displaying noteworthy antimicrobial activity (MIC range between 2.00μg/ml and 16.00μg/ml). Conclusion: Most of the plant extracts demonstrated pathogen specific antimicrobial effects with a few exhibiting broad-spectrum activities. Positive antimicrobial effects noted for plants such as Elephantorrhiza elephantina and Diospyros mespiliformis used for acne vulgaris and ringworm infections, respectively, give some validation to their reported traditiona l uses. Synergistic interactions noted for Pentanisia prunelloides combined with Elephantorrhiza elephantina validate an enhanced antimicrobial effect when used in combination. Noteworthy antimicrobial activities (MIC range between 2.00μg/ml and 16.00μg/ml) were observed for plumbagin isolated from Aristea ecklonii. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

To evaluate dynamics of elephant herbivory, we assessed seasonal preferences for woody plants by African elephant breeding herds in the southeastern part of Kruger National Park (KNP) between 2002 and 2005. Breeding herds had access to a variety of woody plants, and, of the 98 woody plant species that were recorded in the elephant's feeding areas, 63 species were utilized by observed animals. Data were recorded at 948 circular feeding sites (radius 5 m) during wet and dry seasons. Seasonal preference was measured by comparing selection of woody species in proportion to their estimated availability and then ranked according to the Manly alpha (α) index of preference. Animals demonstrated a selection preference in feeding on woody vegetation, and Grewia hexamita, Grewia bicolor, Grewia flavescens, and Grewia monticola were selected consistently more over all seasons. In addition, our results indicate that elephant herds have a low preference for at least some of the woody species prone to extirpation and that feeding preferences for woody plants do not account for the association of elephants and riparian fringe habitat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The genus Musa is not native to Africa. It evolved in tropical Asia, from southwest India eastward to the island of New Guinea. There is a growing circumstantial evidence which suggests that the East African Highland banana and the tropical lowland plantain were cultivated on the African continent since before 1 AD. It is also probable that ABB cooking and AB and AAB dessert cultivars were brought to the continent from India by Arabian traders from 600 AD, and that these were disseminated throughout East Africa. During the colonial era, the main centres of distribution for banana cultivars were botanical gardens, such as Zomba in Malawi, Entebbe in Uganda and Amani in Tanzania. It appears that the very early introductions of Highland banana and plantain arrived in Africa as a relatively clean material without the conspicuous pests and diseases that affect them in Asia. In contrast, several devastating problems now impact the crop in Africa, including nematodes, the borer weevil and diseases, most notably banana bunchy top, banana streak, Sigatoka leaf spots, Xanthomonas wilt and Fusarium wilt. We (a) provide chronological overviews of the first reports/observations of different Musa pests and pathogens/diseases in Africa, (b) highlight specific examples of when a pest or pathogen/disease was introduced via planting materials and (c) give recent examples of how the pests and pathogens spread to new regions via planting materials. In total, these production constraints threaten banana and plantain production throughout the continent and impact those who can ill afford lost production, the small-holder producer. Our intent in this review is to highlight the significance of these problems and the great importance that infested planting materials have played in their development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While the United Nations is the main human rights norm-creator for Africa, the Organisation of African Unity/African Union has 'appropriated' many of these standards in treaties of its own. In as far as these treaties deviate from a global consensus, they do so to ensure greater normative legitimacy in the African context. The institutions created under AU human rights treaties - especially the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights - have shown themselves as relatively effective in promoting and protecting human rights. While the African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights was added by way of a subsequent redesign of the system, its potential has remained largely unexplored. In addition, the emergence of subregional courts as fora to provide relief to victims of human rights has opened the door for competition and forum shopping. These developments have often been initiated and steered by civil society organisations and subregional judicial institutions rather than member states of international organisations. Much can still be done to strengthen and extend complementarity between international organisations in this field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, we discuss a census made of the Cape mission stations in 1849. First, we analyse how it came into being, in terms both of the political pressure which led to the decision of the Legislative Council of the Cape Colony to order its compilation, and of the process by which the actual work was done. Second, we present a number of the more salient of the results of the census, which allow for the first time a full compilation of the number of residents at (almost all) the mission stations within the Cape Colony, broken down by sex and to a degree by age. At the same time, we can provide a degree of information on the ways in which the mission inhabitants were integrated into the Cape's labour process, both formal and informal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Aims of the study: In South Africa, the genus Helichrysum is widely used in traditional medicine. The uses are well documented although renaming of species and the resulting confusing taxonomic nomenclature may cause uncertainty as to which specific species was referred to in some reports. The aim of this paper is to present a collated and coherent overview of the documented traditional uses of Helichrysum species and to update the botanical identity of previously studied species. Materials and methods: Databases (Scifinder, ISI Web of Knowledge) and several books were used to collect in information on South African Helichrysum species. Results: The traditional uses, chemistry and biological activity of Helichrysum species have been summarized. It was attempted to give clarity as to exactly which species is refer to in the ethnobotanical literature. Conclusions: Although a large number of ethnopharmacological uses have been documented and the chemistry of the genus has been studied extensively, only a few South African species have been investigated for their biological activity. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Mentha longifolia (L.) L. subsp. polyadena Briq. was collected from eight localities in southern Africa for a study of the chemical composition and antimicrobial activity. The essential oils were obtained by hydrodistillation and analysed by GC and GC/MS and a cluster analysis was performed on the oil dataset. From eight samples (representing eight natural populations), two major chemotypes were identified: a menthofuran-rich type (51-62%); and a cis-piperitone oxide (15-36%) and piperitenone oxide-rich type (15-66%). The constituent analysis showed quantitative variation with higher amounts of oxygen-containing monoterpenes ranging from 57% to 90% whilst the sesquiterpene hydrocarbons ranged from 4% to 17%. The oil from the different geographical areas mostly showed moderate antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis, Bacillus cereus, Moraxella catarrhalis, Yersinia enterocolitica and Enterococcus faecalis. The oils were generally inactive against Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium. Candida albicans and Cryptococcus neoformans indicated highest sensitivities for oil samples from Komukwane and Prins Albert. These results may in part provide scientific evidence for the extensive use of Mentha longifolia in traditional healing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The essential oils from fresh aerial parts of four Salvia species indigenous to southern Africa were obtained by hydrodistillation and analyzed by GC and GC/MS. Quantitative rather than qualitative differences in oil composition were observed. Forty-three compounds in each species accounting for 78% (S. africana-caerulea), 78% (S. africanalutea), 96% (S. chamelaeagnea) and 81% (S. lanceolata) of the total composition were identified. Salvia africana-caerulea and S. lanceolata were dominated by oxygen-containing sesquiterpenes (59% and 48%, respectively). Oxygen-containing monoterpenes dominated in S. chamelaeagnea (43%), while monoterpene hydrocarbons (36%) were abundant in S. africana-lutea. Scanning electron and light microscopy of the indumentum of the leaves revealed the presence of glandular and non-glandular trichomes. Non-glandular point-shaped trichomes composed of two or three cells are common in all four species and two types of glandular trichomes were noted: peltate trichomes, with up to 16 head cells and a capitate type varying in the number of cells comprising the head and stalk. The oils were evaluated against two Gram-positive and two Gram-negative bacterial strains using the microdilution method and the MIC values ranged from 0.8 to 32 mg/mL. The oils exhibited antiplasmodial (5 < IC50 < 9 μg/mL) and anti-inflammatory (43 < IC50 < 77 μg/mL) activity as determined by the [3H]-hypoxanthine radiometric and 5-lipoxygenase methods, respectively. Compared to other naturally derived antiplasmodial compounds (e.g. quinine) the oils are more toxic to human kidney epithelium cells (MTT method) with the IC50 values ranging from 2-7 μg/mL. The oils exhibited poor antioxidant activity against the DPPH radical at 100 μg/mL. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The essential oil of Salvia muirii L. Bol., a species indigenous to southern Africa was obtained by hydrodistillation (0.5%, v/f.w.) from the aerial parts and analyzed by GC and GC/MS. Thirty-nine components representing 98% of the oil were identified. The oil was dominated by monoterpene hydrocarbons (53%) and oxygen-containing monoterpenes (36%) with 1,8-cineole (23%), α-pinene (22%) and limonene (12%) being the major components. The oil exhibited potent antimalarial (IC50: 6μg/mL) and antibacterial activity especially against Klebsiella pneumoniae and Bacillus cereus with MIC values of 6 and 9mg/mL, respectively. The oil exhibited poor anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity. The 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide toxicity assay revealed that the essential oil of S. muirii should be used with caution as it displayed some degree of toxicity against the transformed human kidney epithelial cells (IC50: 3μg/mL). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Epidemiological and biological studies provide compelling evidence for the protective effect of male circumcision against the acquisition of HIV. Three randomized controlled trials are currently underway to assess the impact of male circumcision as an HIV intervention in traditionally non-circumcising areas with high levels of heterosexually-transmitted infection. This study explores the acceptability of male circumcision among the rural Zulu around Hlabisa and Mtubatuba, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. A cross-sectional convenience sample of 100 men and 44 women was surveyed, and two male focus groups held, to ascertain circumcision preferences within the population. Four in-depth interviews with service providers assessed the feasibility of promoting male circumcision. Fifty-one per cent of uncircumcised men and 68% of women favoured male circumcision of themselves or their partners; while 50% of men and 73% of women would circumcise their sons. For men, the main predictors of circumcision preference pertained to beliefs surrounding sexual pain and pleasure; for women, knowledge about the relationship between male circumcision status and STI acquisition was the key indicator for circumcision preference. Among both sexes the main barrier to circumcision was fear of pain and death. The greatest logistical barrier was that circumcision can presently only be carried out by trained hospital doctors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Special Rapporteur on Prisons and Conditions of Detention in Africa (SRP), established by the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights in 1996, is an innovative procedure aimed at addressing the dire position of detainees in Africa. Its greatest achievement so far has been the impact through visits to places of detention in eleven African Union member states; particularly the three to which follow up visits have been undertaken. It has also played an important promotional role, but has been less successful in dealing with individual complaints. Consideration is given to aspects arising from the coexistence of the SRP with numerous related UN procedures, including the possibility of greater collaboration with respect to urgent appeals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article is a report on a Delphi study undertaken to determine the critical inhibiting factors (constraints) in the teaching and learning of the humanities in South Africa. It is part of a larger project premised on the Theory of Constraints that aims at determining the constraints and finding ways to overcome them. The Delphi technique as a technique for polling expert opinion is briefly described. For this study the opinions of two panels of experts about constraints for the humanities have been polled. Twenty-one constraints were identified to a high degree of reliability. The study confirms that basic language and reading skills are of the utmost importance. It also confirms that the humanities should profile their contribution to society much stronger and learn to deal effectively with the utilitarian and vocational challenges they face today. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sustainable production of banana, plantain and enset in Africa is crucial to secure food and provide income to millions of people. These crops, however, are severely threatened by diseases, pests and environmental constraints. Most bananas in Africa are produced by small-scale farmers who often do not have the financial resources for sustained production by means of the application of chemical fertilisers, fungicides and pesticides. Biotechnology can provide a means whereby plants can be improved for sustainable cultivation. Applications of biotechnology include tissue culture technology, development of molecular markers, and genetic transformation. Biotechnology, however, should not be used in isolation to solve the problems in banana and plantain production in Africa, but should be incorporated into integrated disease and pest management programmes. South Africa has the infrastructure and capacity to play an important role in the training of scientists, research on production constraints, and implementation of biotechnological advances for the rest of Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Examination of the leaf exudate of the South African species Aloe littoralis by reversed-phase HPLC revealed the presence of two major metabolites. The identification of the two compounds without isolation was attempted by HPLC-NMR based on separation using a C18 column eluting with a deuterium oxide:acetonitrile solvent gradient and an inverse HPLC-NMR probe. For each compound, one-dimensional proton spectra, and two-dimensional homonuclear COSY and TOCSY, and heteronuclear HSQC and HMBC, spectra were collected. On the basis of the data obtained, the metabolites were characterised as 10-hydroxyaloin B and deacetyllittoraloin. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Minimum inhibitory percentages (MIPs) of the volatile oils distilled from five plants widely used in African traditional healing; Artemisia afra (A oil), Lippia javanica (LJ oil), Lippia scaberrima (LS oil), Myrothamnus flabellifolius (M oil) and Osmitopsis asteriscoides (O oil)were determined against three strains of Staphylococcus aureus (two of which were methicillin-resistant), one strain of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, two strains of Candida albicans, and one strain of Cryptococcus neoformans. M. flabellifolius essential oil was also tested against an additional strain of S. aureus, two more strains of P. aeruginosa, and two strains of C. glabrata. MIPs were determined using standard microdilution methods. All isolates were inhibited by # 1% of the oils with the exceptions of A and O oils against S. aureus and methicillin-resistant S. aureus, and LS, A, O and LJ oils against P. aeruginosa. Only the M oil exhibited measurable activity against P. aeruginosa. The M oil was the most active of the agents tested. Results show that the essential oil derived from M. flabellifolius exerts antimicrobial activity against a variety of microorganisms and that further study of the chemical constituents of this oil to ascertain the biologically active component is warranted. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Explores the role and function of medicine and medical practices in precolonial Khoikhoi society in South Africa. Indigenous perceptions of health and ill-health; Khoikhoi practitioners and indigenous medicine; Indigenous surgery.

Focuses on Ventersdorp Contact Reef (VCR), a gold-producing conglomerate reefs in the Witwatersrand basin in South Africa. Description of VCR; Related information concerning VCR; Regional VCR Working Group's activity and its results; `VCR Revisited' Symposium; Organizers of the symposium and how it was organized; Symposium synthesis of `VCR Revisited'; View on VCR Revisited symposium and its proceedings; More information.

[Display omitted] • 1H and 13C NMR can be used for the authentication of baobab seed oil. • 1H NMR permits the quantification of the cyclopropanoid fatty acids in baobab oil. • Similarity calculations and differential NMR facilitate detection of adulteration. Baobab seed oil, obtained from the seed kernel of Adansonia digitata from Southern Africa, has experienced an increase in global demand. 1H and 13C NMR was used for the authentication of the baobab oils, allowing for the quantification of the characteristic cyclopropane and cyclopropene fatty acids. Through similarity analysis, differential NMR spectroscopy and multivariate data analysis substantial differences were observed in commercial samples, segregating the oil samples into two groups. The cyclopropane and cyclopropene fatty acids, were absent in one group of the samples, raising the possibility of falsification. Similarity analysis and multivariate data analysis, in which the spectral data were compared with those of fourteen other vegetable oils, indicated a high correlation between the potentially falsified baobab seed oils and soybean oil. A comparison of the phytosterol markers of the oils by differential NMR confirmed the adulteration with soybean oil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Terminalia sericea is used throughout Africa for the treatment of a variety of conditions and has been identified as a potential commercial plant. The study was aimed at establishing a high-performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC) chemical fingerprint for T. sericea root bark as a reference for quality control and exploring chemical variation within the species using HPTLC metabo3lomics. Forty-two root bark samples were collected from ten populations in South Africa and extracted with dichloromethane: methanol (1:1). An HPTLC method was optimized to resolve the major compounds from other sample components. Dichloromethane: ethyl acetate: methanol: formic acid (90:10:30:1) was used as the developing solvent and the plates were visualized using 10% sulfuric acid in methanol as derivatizing agent. The concentrations of three major bioactive compounds, sericic acid, sericoside and resveratrol-3-O-β-rutinoside, in the extracts were determined using a validated ultra-performance liquid chromatography-photodiode array (UPLC-PDA) detection method. The rTLC software (written in the R-programming language) was used to select the most informative retardation factor (Rf) ranges from the images of the analysed sample extracts. Further chemometric models, including principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA), were constructed using the web-based high throughput metabolomic software. The rTLC chemometric models were compared with the models previously obtained from ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS). A characteristic fingerprint containing clear bands for the three bioactive compounds was established. All three bioactive compounds were present in all the samples, although their corresponding band intensities varied. The intensities correlated with the UPLC-PDA results, in that samples containing a high concentration of a particular compound, displayed a more intense band. Chemometric analysis using HCA revealed two chemotypes, and the subsequent construction of a loadings plot indicated that sericic acid and sericoside were responsible for the chemotypic variation; with sericoside concentrated in Chemotype 1, while sericic acid was more abundant in Chemotype 2. A characteristic chemical fingerprint with clearly distinguishable features was established for T. sericea root bark that can be used for species authentication, and to select samples with high concentrations of a particular marker compound(s). Different chemotypes, potentially differing in their therapeutic potency towards a particular target, could be distinguished. The models revealed the three analytes as biomarkers, corresponding to results reported for UPLC-MS profiling and thereby indicating that HPTLC is a suitable technique for the quality control of T. sericea root bark. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mineral major and trace elements combined with Sr isotopes of clinopyroxene are used to unravel the origins and evolution of mantle eclogite and pyroxenite xenoliths from the Doornkloof-Sover orangeite dike (western Kaapvaal craton), and to investigate the generation and destruction of diamond in these rocks. Two different eclogite types are present: (1) MgO-poor eclogites (MgO = 7.3 to 14.5 wt%; n = 43) with accessory diamond ± corundum and kyanite, high garnet grossular content (median Ca# = 0.25) and clinopyroxene jadeite content (0.39). Reconstructed bulk rocks are LREE-depleted (median La 0.29 ppm) and have low median Cr 2 O 3 (0.06 wt%) and incompatible trace-element contents (e.g. Sr, Zr, Ba, Pb, Th), and high Li and transition metal abundances. Some are characterised by stepped REE patterns or steep slopes in the MREE, similar to eclogites affected by interaction with dehydration fluids generated in subduction zones. These fluids may also have deposited diamond in typically reducing eclogite assemblages at diamond-stable pressures. (2) MgO-rich eclogites and pyroxenites (MgO = 14.0 to 20.0 wt%; n = 29), which are barren and enriched in LREE (median La 1.39 ppm), Cr 2 O 3 (0.25 wt%) and incompatible trace elements, with lower Li and transition metal abundances than the MgO-poor group. These are typical signatures of carbonated ultramafic melt metasomatism in the mantle lithosphere. Strontium isotopic compositions vary widely in both groups, but high Cr 2 O 3 and Ba contents are dominantly associated with 87Sr/86Sr > 0.7055. This reflects interaction with metasomatic agents remobilised from ancient lithospheric metasomes, which eventually gave rise to regional orangeite magmatism. The presence of strong positive Eu anomalies in both groups, including two pyroxenites, requires low-pressure igneous protoliths, presumably derived from a ca. 3 Ga spreading ridge, as reported for other eclogite materials from the western Kaapvaal craton. Based on the proportions of MgO-poor and –rich eclogites and pyroxenites, approximately 40% of the diamond inventory were destroyed by mantle metasomatism centred at ~135 ± 15 km depth, overlapping a low-velocity anomaly (mid-lithospheric discontinuity). Two diamondiferous orangeites ≤20 km from Doornkloof-Sover contain significantly different eclogite xenolith populations: At Newlands, MgO-poor diamondiferous eclogites are present in addition to barren MgO-rich ones and pyroxenites, suggesting that the host orangeite sampled a source region equally affected by diamond-destructive mantle metasomatism, whereas at Bellsbank, all eclogites are MgO-poor and LREE-depleted. This may explain higher diamond grades reported for this locality compared to Newlands or Doornkloof-Sover. • Doornkloof-Sover eclogite xenolith suite differs from those in neighbouring orangeites • Subduction metasomatism with steep positive MREE patterns linked to diamond formation • Mantle metasomatism with LREE enrichment linked to barren eclogites (~40% of samples) • Diamond-destructive metasomatism occurred across space and time in southern Africa • Centred in mid-lithosphere overlapping seismic velocity anomaly [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Propolis, a resinous substance produced by the Apis mellifera bee, contains a number of flavonoids sourced from plants found in the surrounding region. Whilst bees use this substance to seal off and protect the beehive, humans have used propolis therapeutically for centuries, making use of its antibacterial, antiseptic, antipyretic and wound healing properties, among others. South African propolis is rich in the flavonoids pinocembrin, galangin, and chrysin and very little previous research has been conducted on the antimicrobial effects of these compounds. To obtain an understanding of the antimicrobial activity of the compounds pinocembrin, galangin, and chrysin, both independently and in combination. The compounds pinocembrin, galangin and chrysin were investigated for interactive antimicrobial activity by determining the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC), minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBC), anti-quorum sensing activity, biofilm studies, and toxicity studies (brine shrimp lethality assay). Minimum inhibitory concentration results demonstrated that combinations of compounds showed better inhibitory activity than single compounds. When the flavonoids were tested in combination using the MIC assay, synergy was noted for 22% of the 1:1 ratio combinations and for 66% of the triple 1:1:1 ratio combinations. Similarly, MBC results showed bactericidal activity from selected combinations, while the compounds on their own demonstrated no cidal activity. Quorum sensing studies showed that compound combinations are more effective at inhibiting bacterial communication than the individual compounds. Biofilm assays showed that the highest percentage inhibition was observed for the triple combination against E. coli at 24 h. Finally, brine shrimp lethality studies revealed that combinations of the three compounds had reduced cytotoxicity when compared to the individual compounds. The results obtained in this study demonstrate that the compounds found in South African propolis work synergistically to achieve an optimal antimicrobial effect, whilst simultaneously minimizing cytotoxicity. Image 1 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Devil's claw • Harpagophytum procumbens • Harpagophytum zeyheri • BRONX algorithm • DNA barcoding • UHPLC-MS • HPTLC Devil's claw is a popular natural anti-inflammatory phytomedicine. The preparation of Devil's claw products is complicated by the similarity between the morphotypes of Harpagophytum procumbens and H. zeyheri. This study investigated the potential of a validated ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS) method to investigate the harpagoside content of methanol extracts of the secondary tubers of both species. In addition, DNA barcoding was used to determine the identity of the Harpagophytum species included in commercial Devil's claw products. Herbal reference material of H. procumbens and H. zeyheri, originally harvested in southern Africa, was morphologically authenticated and commercial products containing Harpagophytum were purchased on the internet using the search terms " Harpagophytum " or "Devil's claw." High-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) and UHPLC-MS was used for the qualitative and quantitative determination of harpagoside content in commercial products. The UHPLC-MS method developed had a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.165 µg/mL and a limit of quantification (LOQ) of 0.499 µg/mL. Quantitative UHPLC-MS analysis revealed high variability in the harpagoside content for both species; H. procumbens (0.17-4.37%) and H. zeyheri (0.00-3.07%). Only 41% of H. procumbens and 17% of H. zeyheri raw materials contained harpagoside. Using HPTLC, 90% of the commercial products tested were determined to contain harpagoside. The results were congruent with the UHPLC-MS analysis where the harpagoside content was out of specification for 10% of analyzed commercial products. The harpagoside content in commercial products varied from not detected to 3.50%. PCR amplification followed by comparative sequencing analysis of trnL-F, and ycf1 plastid gene amplicons indicated specific sites in trnL-F at positions 118 and 146 and at position 538 in ycf1 amplicons suitable to distinguish the two Harpagophytum species. These sites were used to barcode the herbal products and Character-based Barcode Recognition Obtained with Nucleotide eXposés (BRONX) analyses verified the taxonomic identity of the Harpagophytum in the samples. The results revealed that 76% (16/21) of the commercial products tested were incorrectly labelled as H. procumbens and, instead, contained H. zeyheri. Our study suggests that DNA barcoding in combination with the UHPLC-MS and HPTLC could significantly support herbal product authentication. This study contributed knowledge and methods that can be implemented to enhance the quality of commercial Devil's claw products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prunus africana (Hook.f.) Kalkman (Rosaceae), commonly known as "Pygeum" or "African cherry", occurs in mainland montane forests scattered across sub-Saharan Africa, Madagascar, and some surrounding islands. Traditionally, decoctions of the stem-bark are taken orally for the treatment of a wide variety of conditions, such as benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), stomach ache, chest pain, malaria, heart conditions, and gonorrhoea, as well as urinary and kidney diseases. The timber is used to make axe handles and for other household needs. The dense wood is also sawn for timber. The fragmented information available on the ethnobotany, phytochemistry, and biological activities of the medicinally important P. africana was collated, organised, and analysed in this review, to highlight knowledge voids that can be addressed through future research. A bibliometric analysis of research output on P. africana was conducted on literature retrieved, using the Scopus® database. The trend in the publications over time was assessed and a network analysis of collaborations between countries and authors was carried out. Furthermore, a detailed review of the literature over the period 1971 to 2021, acquired through Scopus, ScienceDirect, SciFinder, Pubmed, Scirp, DOAJ and Google Scholar, was conducted. All relevant abstracts, full-text articles and various book chapters on the botanical and ethnopharmacological aspects of P. africana , written in English and German, were consulted. A total of 455 documents published from 1971 to 2021, were retrieved using the Scopus search. Analysis of the data showed that the majority of these documents were original research articles, followed by reviews and lastly a miscellaneous group comprising conference papers, book chapters, short surveys, editorials and letters. Data were analysed for annual output and areas of intense research focus, and countries with high research output, productive institutions and authors, and collaborative networks were identified. Prunus africana is reported to exhibit anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antimicrobial, anti-oxidant, antiviral, antimutagenic, anti-asthmatic, anti-androgenic, antiproliferative and apoptotic activities amongst others. Phytosterols and other secondary metabolites such as phenols, triterpenes, fatty acids, and linear alcohols have been the focus of phytochemical investigations. The biological activity has largely been ascribed to the phytosterols (mainly 3- β -sitosterol, 3- β -sitostenone, and 3- β -sitosterol-glucoside), which inhibit the production of prostaglandins in the prostate, thereby suppressing the inflammatory symptoms associated with BPH and chronic prostatitis. Many of the ethnobotanical assertions for the biological activity of P. africana have been confirmed through in vitro and in vivo studies. However, a disparity exists between the biological activity of the whole extract and that of single compounds isolated from the extract, which were reported to be less effective. This finding suggests that a different approach to biological activity studies should be encouraged that takes all secondary metabolites present into consideration. A robust technique, such as multivariate biochemometric data analysis, which allows for a holistic intervention to study the biological activity of a species is suggested. Furthermore, there is a need to develop rapid and efficient quality control methods for both raw materials and products to replace the time-consuming and laborious methods currently in use. [Display omitted] • Prunus africana is distributed in Sub-Saharan Africa and some offshore islands. • Traditionally, the stem-bark is commonly used to treat benign prostatic hyperplasia. • Prunus africana is composed of phytosterols, phenols, triterpenes, and fatty acids. • Prunus africana has anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antiviral activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The leaves of Catha edulis Vahl. Endl., known as Khat, are widely used as a “natural amphetamine” stimulant in Africa and in the Arabian Peninsula. In recent years, there has been an increase in the amounts exported to the USA, Australia and Europe. Although the dried, powdered form of the young and mature leaves, as well as samples from different geographical origins, have similar physical appearance, they have not been proven to exhibit equipotent stimulatory activity. In this study, powdered young and mature leaves were differentiated using vibrational spectroscopy, which included mid-infrared (MIR) and near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy and hyperspectral imaging (HSI), and ultra performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UPLC–MS), in combination with chemometric data analysis. Samples originating from Ethiopia or South Africa could also be distinguished using chemometric models constructed from HSI data. Principal component analysis (PCA) and orthogonal projection to latent structures discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) was successfully applied to classify powdered Khat samples according to their geographical origin and level of maturity. The OPLS-DA model constructed from the MIR and UPLC–MS data displayed the ability to clearly distinguish between young and mature leaves, as illustrated by the model statistics ( R 2 X cum and Q 2 cum > 80% and R 2 Y > 90%). Shortwave infrared hyperspectral imaging could distinguish Khat samples from two distinct geographical regions with good model statistics ( R 2 X cum = 0.91 and Q 2 cum = 0.92) and discriminate between the maturity levels ( R 2 X cum = 0.85 and Q 2 cum = 0.80). These models could prove valuable as rapid techniques for identifying confiscated Khat in forensic environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Ethnopharmacological relevance: Harpagophytum procumbens subps. procumbens (Burch.) DC. ex Meisn. (Pedaliaceae) is an important traditional medicine growing in the Kalahari region of southern Africa where it is consumed as a general health tonic and for treating diverse ailments including arthritis, pain, fever, ulcers and boils. Aim of the review: To provide a comprehensive overview of the ethnobotany, phytochemistry and biological activity of H. procumbens and possibly make recommendations for further research. Materials and methods: Peer-reviewed articles on H. procumbens were acquired on Scopus, ScienceDirect and SciFinder, there was no specific timeline set for the search. A focus group discussion was held with different communities in Botswana to further understand ethnobotanical uses of the plant. Results: Harpogophytum procumbens is used for a wide variety of health conditions in the form of infusions, decoctions, tinctures, powders and extracts. In addition to the common local use for arthritis and pain, other ethnomedicinal uses include dyspepsia, fever, blood diseases, urinary tract infections, postpartum pain, sprains, sores, ulcers and boils. Scientific studies revealed that H. procumbens exhibits analgesic, anti-oxidant, anti-diabetic, anti-epileptic, antimicrobial and antimalarial activities amongst others. Iridoid glycosides and phenylpropanoid glycosides have been the focus of phytochemical investigations as the biological activity has been ascribed to the iridoid glycosides (such as harpagoside and harpagide), which are common in nature and are known to possess anti-inflammatory activity. In addition, it has been shown that the hydrolysed products of harpagoside and harpagide have more pronounced anti-inflammatory activity when compared to the unhydrolysed compounds. Harpagophytum zeyheri is a close taxonomic ally of H. procumbens but H. procumbens is the favoured species of commerce, and contains higher levels of the pharmacologically active constituents. The two are used interchangeably and H. procumbens raw material is often intentionally adulterated with H. zeyheri and this may impact on the efficacy of inadequately controlled health products. The main exporter of this highly commercialised plant is Namibia. In 2009 alone, Harpagophytum exports were worth approximately €1.06 million. The high demand for health products based on this plant has led to over-harvesting, raising concerns about sustainability. Although only the secondary tubers are utilised commercially, the whole plant is often destroyed during harvesting. Conclusions: Harpagophytum procumbens is used to treat a wide range of ailments. Some of the ethnobotanical claims have been confirmed through in vitro studies, however, when the constituents deemed to be the biologically active compounds were isolated the efficacy was lower than that of the whole extract. This necessitates the use of a different approach where all the metabolites are considered using a robust method such as spectroscopy; the phytochemical data can then be superimposed on the biological activity. Furthermore, there is a need to develop rapid and efficient quality control methods for both raw materials and products because the orthodox methods in current use are time-consuming and labour intensive. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Hermannia species are widely used in traditional medicine in southern Africa, however no extensive study has been conducted on this genus. The acetone extracts of 12 indigenous Hermannia species (flowers, stems and leaves combined) were evaluated for various pharmacological activities. All investigated species displayed promising antimicrobial activity, with Hermannia saccifera being the most active against Staphylococcus aureus (MIC=19.5μg/ml), Bacillus cereus (MIC=19.5μg/ml) and Enterococcus faecalis (MIC=125μg/ml). Time-kill studies on H. saccifera against S. aureus indicated bacteriostatic activity at 1.25, 2.5 and 5.0%, and a concentration of 7.5% achieved complete bactericidal activity after 4h. Ten of the 12 species indicated good free radical scavenging activity, with H. cuneifolia demonstrating the most promising activity in the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH:IC50=10.26μg/ml) and 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethyl-benzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS+/TEAC: IC50=10.32μg/ml) assays. In addition, all species exhibited moderate anti-inflammatory activity in the 5-lipoxygenase assay with the exception of H. cuneifolia (IC50=15.32μg/ml). Overall, the selected species were low in cytotoxicity, except for H. saccifera and H. trifurca. Several Hermannia species indicated promising in vitro biological activity which relate to their traditional use in treating a number of disease states. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]