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One of the challenging issues that educational organizations in developing countries face in staffing classrooms with qualified teachers is the high rate of teachers' turnover. It creates problems for schools, which eventually leads to substandard instruction and low student achievement. This research explores the causes of English teachers' turnover in a Non-Government Educational Organization in Kabul, Afghanistan. The results indicate that lack of teachers' motivation, low salary, communication gap between management and teachers, market opportunities for English teachers, workload, absence of career path and weak recruitment processes are the major factors contributing to teachers' turnover in Afghanistan. The high teachers' turnover leads to such negative effects as interruptions in learning process, behavioural adjustment of students with new teachers, continuous exposure of students with novice teachers, emotional detachments of students with their teachers and negative effects on students' learning. The article concludes that educational organizations should deal with their teachers more humanely. Teachers retain and perform in an organization when they are valued, motivated and satisfied with their jobs and their professional status. In the absence of such environment, it is likely that educational organizations in Afghanistan would continue to struggle to attract and retain qualified teachers, which will eventually compromise on the achievements of their students. Considering the findings, creation of covenantal bond rather than contractual bond is suggested as a strategy that could be augmented by a transformational leadership, which can motivate the teachers to remain committed to their profession.

Background: The structural and functional differences between hepatitis B virus (HBV) genotypes are the mainstay to severity, complications, treatment and possibly vaccination against the virus. This study was conducted to determine the HBV genotypes in HBsAg positive patients of Afghanistan as no such large scale data available previously. Methods: Two hundred and fourteen HBsAg-positive patients were included in this study. All patients were anti-HCV and anti-HIV negative. All the samples were confirmed for HBV DNA with nested PCR while HBV DNA positive samples were subjected to type specific PCR for HBV genotyping (A-F). Results: Of the total samples, 168 (78.5%) were males and 46 (21.49%) females, aged ranged between 18 to 71 years. This study demonstrated that genotype D (35.67%) is the predominant genotype circulating in Afghani's population. Genotype C was observed in 32.16% followed by genotype A (19.30%), and genotype B (7.02%) while 6.07% of the individuals were not typed. Conclusion: This study has shown a heterogeneous distribution of HBV genotypes. Further more, extensive studies are required to investigate genetic and geographical divergence and characteristics of the virus in the country, as no such large sample sized study has been carried out so far in this country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]