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The main focus of the paper is on youth unemployment and wider transitions into work, but it also has some thoughts on adult unemployment and re-training. This paper is founded upon a basic assumption -- namely that if the public money available across the United Kingdom to support measures around skills and unemployment is finite, then targeting those most at risk and defining which kinds of measures are the most cost-effective will be important. The information already available (Wilson et al, 2020) suggests that it is known which sectors, occupations, localities and kinds of people will most likely be hardest hit by the coming recession. The main issues will be deciding: (1) What groups to prioritise, which interventions will work best and most cost-effectively, and also which can be delivered to swiftly address the immediate problems liable to emerge as the furlough scheme is wound down and school, college and university leavers hit a disrupted labour market; and (2) what additional measures will be needed in the longer term as some groups experience extended periods of unemployment.

This paper was written in 2018 by NCWD/Youth [National Collaborative on Workforce and Disability for Youth] to inform the development of the Guideposts for Success 2.0, an update to the original Guideposts for Success published in 2005. Since it was created in 2005, the Guideposts for Success has become nationally recognized as a valuable research-based framework to inform policies and practices designed to prepare and support youth in transition to adulthood. In 2012, NCWD/Youth began an in-depth process aimed at updating the Guideposts for Success to reflect the latest research studies and current professional standards of practice for supporting youth in transition to adulthood across multiple service systems and sectors. The process included reviewing literature related to youth transition from multiple disciplines.

The aim of the paper is to identify and analyse patterns and trends in enrolment in upper secondary initial vocational education and training (IVET) in Europe over the period 1995 to 2015. The research produced findings on comparability of the international data as well as trends in enrolment in upper secondary IVET and its share of enrolment in upper secondary education. It found that, in countries where there has been a decline in VET enrolment, most of this is due to a declining youth population. It also found that many fluctuations in enrolment figures are artificial in the sense that they are the result of changing national classification and/or reporting practices. When correcting for these factors, findings show that the development of absolute enrolment in VET, as well as its share of enrolment in upper secondary education, has been quite stable in most countries. [The research was carried out by a consortium led by 3s Unternehmensberatung GmbH, and includes the Danish Technological Institute, the Institute of Employment Research (University of Warwick), the Institute of International and Social Studies (Tallinn University) and Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini. The Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training (BIBB) in Germany is supporting the project as a subcontractor.]

Global youth unemployment is a significant cause of poverty, resulting in the persistent marginalization of populations. Education and career counseling professionals and professionals in policy, research, and practice concur that the consequences of global youth unemployment are dire. But leaders in these domains have not yet come to an agreement on the best ways to face this global challenge. Our analysis of interdisciplinary literature on global youth unemployment is a first step in identifying and formalizing best practices for culturally appropriate career and workforce development worldwide. This research will support education and career counseling professionals in developing appropriate career and psychosocial support interventions, establishing empirical intervention efficacy and other program evaluation protocols, and creating a capacity-building infrastructure for knowledge-sharing across policy, research, and practitioner stakeholder groups. We also include a proposal for next steps to establish rigorous empirical support for these future initiatives.

This paper studies the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on youth disconnection--i.e., the share of young people who were neither in school nor at work. Youth disconnection offers important advantages, relative to unemployment or participation rates, as a measure of the labor market for the most marginal and disadvantaged youth. Before the pandemic, approximately one out of eight young people between the ages of 18 and 24 were disconnected. The disconnection rate increased dramatically in April 2020 because of the pandemic; however, it has decreased quickly since that time. The increase in the disconnection rate at the beginning of the pandemic was mostly driven by a reduction in full-time work, but toward the end of 2020, the school enrollment rate also fell. Within-individual transition analysis reveals that the pandemic drove some individuals to disconnection, regardless of whether those persons were in school, at work, or already disconnected. Full-time workers saw the largest increase in transition to disconnection. Compared to the 2007 recession, the full-time-work to full-time-work transition decreased more and the full-time-work to disconnection transition increased more during this pandemic.

This study assesses the changing lifestyles, values, and preferences of American youth on a continuing basis. Each year since 1975, at least 13,000 seniors have participated in the annual survey, which is conducted in some 130 high schools nationwide. Since 1991, the study's annual surveys also have included surveys of similar nationally representative samples of eighth- and tenth-grade students. In addition, subsamples of high school seniors from previously participating classes receive follow-up questionnaires by mail each year. This report presents the objectives and theoretical Foundation of the Monitoring the Future Study. [For the designs and the procedures for the Monitoring the Future Study, see "The Monitoring the Future Project after Four Decades: Design and Procedures. Monitoring the Future Occasional Paper Series. Paper 82," ED578425.]

The purpose of this paper is to provide a detailed description of the Monitoring the Future research design, including sampling design, data collection procedures, measurement content, and questionnaire format. This study assesses the changing lifestyles, values, and preferences of American youth on a continuing basis. Each year since 1975, at least 13,000 seniors have participated in the annual survey, which is conducted in some 120 to 140 high schools nationwide. Since 1991, the study's annual surveys also have included surveys of similar nationally representative samples of eighth- and tenth- grade students. In addition, subsamples of seniors from previously participating classes receive follow-up questionnaires by mail each year. [For the objectives and theoretical foundation for the Monitoring the Future Study, see "The Objectives and Theoretical Foundation of the Monitoring the Future Study. Monitoring the Future Occasional Paper Series. Paper 84," ED578426.]

Holding a summer job is a rite of passage in American adolescence, a first rung towards adulthood and self-sufficiency. However, over the past decade, youth employment during the summer has decreased significantly. Summer youth employment has the potential to benefit high school students' educational outcomes and employment trajectories, especially for low-income youth. Despite the potential importance of youth employment during summer, evidence of the impact of summer jobs on youth outcomes is limited to only a few studies. Our research examines summer youth employment, beginning with academic outcomes, by studying New York City's Summer Youth Employment Program (SYEP). SYEP provides jobs to youth ages 14-24, and due to high demand for summer jobs, allocates slots through a random lottery system, allowing for causal estimates of program impact. Our study uses student-level data from the New York City Department of Youth and Community Development (the SYEP administrating agency) and New York City Department of Education, encompassing approximately 300,000 student SYEP applicants for the 2005-2009 program years. This paper examines the impact of SYEP on a wider range of academic performance outcomes, including test taking, passing rates and scores. It also attends to variation in these outcomes. Our findings suggest that SYEP has positive impacts on some student academic outcomes, and that these effects are heterogeneous. Future analyses will focus on examining program, student and school characteristics that might explain these variations. The following tables are appended: (1) Lottery randomization results; (2) Attrition in year following application to SYEP, Grade 8-11 and alternative program, 2005-08; and (3) Impact of selection on attrition, by grade.

We develop and estimate a life-cycle model in a rational addiction framework where youth choose to smoke, attend school, work part-time, and consume while facing borrowing constraints. The model features multiple channels for studying the reciprocal causal effects of addiction and education. Variations in endowments and cigarette prices are sources of identification. We show that education causally reduces smoking. A counterfactual experiment finds that in absence of cigarettes, college attendance rises by three percentage points in the population. A practical alternative of 40% additional excise tax achieves similar results. Impacts vary substantially across persons of different cognitive and non-cognitive abilities.

Social capital refers to the attributes and qualities of family, social and community networks that facilitate cooperation between individuals and communities. The quality of these networks and the extent to which individuals are engaged with them are believed to have an impact on the educational and social development of children and young people. Some evidence suggests that the influence of community networks can even help to offset some of the effects of socioeconomic disadvantage. Its intangible nature makes measuring social capital difficult. Measuring the social capital of young people is even more difficult because people tend to focus on the social capital of their parents and pay less attention to that of young people. This briefing paper discusses how young people's social capital can be examined using the Longitudinal Surveys of Australian Youth (LSAY). The paper is divided into four sections. In the first, the author looks at two social capital frameworks to clarify the various themes and complexities associated with social capital. In the second section he draws on these frameworks to assess the suitability of using data from LSAY to investigate social capital and its relationship to youth transitions. The next section summarises other social capital-related research that has used LSAY data. Finally, he draws some conclusions and makes some recommendations for future directions for LSAY in this area. Appended are: (1) Social Capital Questions, 2004-05; and (2) Social Capital and Social Capital-Related Questions. (Contains 2 figures, 3 tables and 1 footnote.)

A strong VET system is increasingly seen as essential to overcoming the current economic crisis in Europe. VET is seen as a powerful tool to assist in balancing labour market inefficiencies, increasing youth employment possibilities, and reducing skills mismatch. Its inherent flexibility and closeness to the labour market place VET in a good position to contribute to a faster economic recovery and long-term sustainable development. However, crucial for this role is continuous and systematic VET renewal that assures its relevance for the labour market. This publication explores 15 European national approaches to feedback mechanisms between VET and the labour market. It illustrates the diversity of solutions currently applied across Europe and how they are embedded in national traditions and education philosophy. The study asks three fundamental questions: how inclusive are national mechanisms for feedback between the VET system and the labour market; how responsive are existing mechanisms; and how transparent? Three annexes provide: (1) Case Studies; (2) List of interviewees; and (3) List of experts responsible for the country overviews. Bibliography and references are included. [This paper is the result of a team effort reflecting the work of a research consortium led by Jörg Markowitsch from 3s Research Laboratory who together with Tanja Bacher, Carol Costley, David Etherington, Gerhard Geiger, Günter Hefler, Jelena Helemäe, Triin Roosalu, Ellu Saar, Auni Tamm, and Odd Bjørn Ure conducted the research and fieldwork and drafted the report. This work was carried out under Cedefop's service contract No 2011-0161/AO/ECVL/JB-IPS/Cooperation Labour market--VET/007/11.]

For a long time, leaders have asked the question, where will the next generation of leaders come from? And for a long time the same formula has been applied: Identify those high potentials in high school, college or in the workforce and provide that select group leadership development opportunities. One focus of the Leadership Beyond Boundaries initiative is early leadership development. But what do we mean by "early"? One answer the Center for Creative Leadership (CCL) has been hearing for years comes from senior leaders, as they leave CCL programs wishing they had been able to benefit from a leadership development experience much earlier in their lives. Couple this statement with comments from youth, leadership development practitioners (Van Velsor, 2011), principals, and educators in schools and universities and a fairly consistent theme begins to emerge--that leadership development could occur much earlier and be provided to a broader audience. Prompted by this theme of earlier and broader leadership development initiatives the authors began to ask several questions. When should leadership development start? What are the most important competencies to focus on in developing young leaders? Do current leaders see young people as having what is needed for success? Have young people been able to develop the competencies organizations need in their entry-level workforce or that they will need to lead organizations and society forward? What impact would a broad investment in younger audiences have? Would it help them learn more about themselves and others, and propel them on an increased path of purpose and impact? A subset of these important questions was the focus of a 2012 CCL Leadership Insights survey, the results of which are summarized in this paper. This online survey of business, government, nonprofit, and education leaders focused on: 1) the age a young person should commence his or her leadership journey, 2) whether leadership development should be part of the regular educational curriculum, 3) how widely it should be offered, 4) leadership qualities that managers want to see in young people entering the workforce, and 5) what excites managers and what concerns them about the young people they employ today. (Contains 2 resources.

By definition, youth transitions involve young people moving between school, post-school study and employment. It is a time of flux, as young people try out different school, post-school work and study options. But are those who don't find work immediately likely to make a poor transition? Given that many may well have a spell out of the labour force, everyone needs to understand when this becomes a risk factor. This briefing paper draws on related research and some primary data analysis to consider whether being "at risk" is a permanent or transitory state. It suggests that, rather than counting the numbers of young people who are detached from work, study or other meaningful activities, everyone should focus on those who remain disconnected. It is important to be able to identify who may be most "at risk" of an unsuccessful transition to ensure that targeted and appropriate interventions can be implemented. Young people who accumulate disadvantage through poor literacy and numeracy and who are uninterested in school appear particularly vulnerable. They tend to leave school early and suffer disproportionally in the labour market. If this detachment from work or study continues for an extended period of time, the young person's inability to develop employability skills and their lack of work experience adversely affect their prospects of future employment. This is detrimental not only to the individual but also to the nation's productivity. Therefore, programs which help young people to make smoother and faster transitions into further study or employment are important. (Contains 6 tables, 3 figures and 4 footnotes.)

Effectively meeting the needs of an increasingly diverse population of students presents challenges for educators across the United States, including the Texas and Southeast Comprehensive Center regions. Increasingly rigorous achievement expectations must be supported with flexible, accessible curricula, offering multiple pathways to success in order to secure opportunities for all children. Key points of this briefing paper include the following: (1) Multi-tier systems of support offer a research-based approach to addressing the myriad needs of youth struggling with school success; and (2) Application of the principles of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) can make curriculum and instruction both accessible and engaging for all learners, resulting in increased opportunities for learning success. The success of any public education reform effort will be tied, at least in part, to the ability to address appropriately the academic and social-behavior needs of diverse learners. By redefining the focus from one of "fixing students" to one of providing high-quality education that is responsive to individual needs (Riele, p. 141) the system will invariably improve experiences and outcomes for all students.

The purpose of this project is to apply the framework developed by the National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER) for measuring research impact to assess the outcomes of the research and activities funded under the Longitudinal Surveys of Australian Youth (LSAY) Research Innovation and Expansion Fund (RIEF). LSAY provides a rich source of information about young people and their transitions from school to post-school destinations. The purpose of the Research Innovation and Expansion Fund was to facilitate an increase in the quantity, quality, distribution and accessibility of youth transitions research and analysis using LSAY data in the academic and public policy communities. The RIEF involved a variety of activities, including a competitive research grants program and a fellowship, and has led to the publication of six research reports, a national youth policy forum and data workshops. This study reinforces the point that the interplay between research and policy is complex. Nevertheless, in this case, connections between policy, practice and research have been strengthened as a result of the Research Innovation and Expansion Fund. This study also confirms the effectiveness of NCVER processes for the dissemination of research. The importance of a media release for immediate impact is noted. Policy forums and engaging directly with policy-makers and other stakeholders can also play a very positive part. Data workshops are appended. (Contains 5 tables and 9 footnotes.)

As demographics shift and immigration is a hotly contested area of US civic life, the civic preparation and participation of Latin American immigrant youth is becoming increasingly important. The author examines the growing literature on this topic, inquiring into the political and demographic changes that have stimulated this area of inquiry, the challenges of studying this population, and what individuals currently know and what they still need to know about immigrant youth civic engagement and activism. At a time when the struggle for immigrant rights in the US is caught in the crossfire of severe recession and racism, young immigrant activists offer a ray of hope through their modest yet noteworthy successes. Scholarship on their civic engagement sheds light on ways that young people who live on the fault line between nation-states are creatively forging civic identities, claiming political voices, and making an impact. (Contains 144 footnotes.) [Funding for this paper was provided by the University of California All Campus Consortium on Research for Diversity (UC ACCORD), UC Berkeley's Center for Latino Policy Research, UC MEXUS, and the University of Illinois at Springfield.]

Roughly forty million boys and girls between the ages of 5 and 18 take part in organized athletic activities, most of which are not school-based. Boys and girls play in sports as varied as swimming, baseball, soccer, wrestling, and field hockey. The great majority participate in "recreational" leagues in which teams enroll all-comers, compete against local counterparts, and honor the norm "everyone gets to play." The lessons a child takes from his sports involvement-lessons about sportsmanship, fair play, and competition-are shaped in large measure by parental attitudes and behavior. A good deal of attention by sports organizers and scholars focuses on the effect of coaches on young players' attitudes, and justifiably so, but evidence suggests that a player's family has the greatest influence on his views, and within the family, parents are more influential than siblings. Appended are: (1) Shields and Bredemeier; (2) Stoll, Lumpkin, Beller, and Hahm; (3) Kohlberg; and (4) Neo-Kohlbergianism. (Contains 214 endnotes.) [This Working Paper was produced by CIRCLE (The Center for Information and Research on Civic Learning and Engagement). For CIRCLE Working Paper 45, see ED491132.]

Using the qualitative research method known as folknography, the authors led a research team to the heart of Illinois farm country to ask the question "What are the perceptions of the people of the Midwest concerning math and math education?" A review of the literature includes Canadian and Australian references on the topic, as well as information from the United States, and the targeted geography and population is described. Research followed the pattern of a similar study conducted in Appalachia in 2004. A preliminary survey was planned to gather benchmarking statistical data and to open respondents up to the possibilities of a folknographic interview. Folknographers entered the field in May 2006 to perform focused and intensive field research. Findings include: (1) belief that young people can not perform simple math; (2) perception that too much technology has a significant and negative impact on developing minds of students; (3) connection between acquiring math knowledge and achieving a dynamic career; (4) recollections of tyrannical or cruel math teachers; (5) desire for a school or school system that makes learning math an exciting and motivating experience. Folknographic narratives are included to illustrate each finding. Bibliography is included. Four appendixes conclude the document: (1) Perceptions of Math in the Mid-West Interview Questions: Adults (18-55); (2) Perceptions of Math in the Mid-West Interview Questions: Seniors (55-Over); (3) Perceptions of Math in the Mid-West Interview Questions: Youth (Ages 10-17); and (4) Perceptions of Math Survey Mid-West. (Contains 4 charts.)

A common practice in the fields of education, mental health, and juvenile justice is to segregate problem youths in groups with deviant peers. Assignments of this sort, which concentrate deviant youths, may facilitate deviant peer influence and lead to perverse outcomes. This possibility adds to the list of arguments in support of "mainstreaming" when ever possible. But there are other concerns that help justify segregated-group assignments, including efficiency of service delivery and protection of the public. Our analysis organizes the discussion about the relevant tradeoffs. First, the number of deviant youths (relative to the size of the relevant population, or to the number of assignment locations) affects whether the harm-minimizing assignment calls for diffusion or segregation. Second, the nature of the problematic behavior is relevant; behavior that has a direct, detrimental effect on others who share the assignment makes a stronger case for segregation. Third, the capacity for behavior control matters, and may make the difference in a choice between segregation and integration. We briefly discuss the empirical literature, which with some exceptions is inadequate to the task of providing clear guidance about harm-minimizing assignment strategies. Finally, we reflect briefly on the medical-practice principle "first do no harm," and contrast it with the claims of potential victims of deviants. (Contains 6 footnotes.)

A shrinking number of Americans are interested in politics?a trend pronounced among younger citizens. Politicians, academics, civic leaders and others are scrambling to find solutions. This study was commissioned by the Center for Information and Research on Civic Learning and Engagement (CIRCLE) and focuses on local political parties. Historically, local parties have played an important role in getting people to the polls. Many observers have suggested they are the key cogs of the democratic process. The problem that many local party committees confront in effectively reaching out to young voters seems to stem from a lack of innovation. Simply put, traditional approaches to getting-out-the-vote are ineffective with the new generation. It does not appear to be enough simply to ?hand out voter registration cards at the high schools? or to ?make calls before election day." The national parties seem to have gotten the message: in order to truly connect with young voters, the parties must develop novel approaches. It is time for local parties to step outside the box.

This paper provides an overview of trends in physical health outcomes of young people over the last several decades. It makes the argument for the importance of physical health and well-being for the individual and society, including its role in education outcomes. The paper then examines interventions, identifying common factors of effective intervention design to improve physical health among young people. It ends with a discussion of remaining gaps in our knowledge and the implications of this body of research on education, communities and families.

Researchers have theorized that programs to promote positive citizenship should begin with an opportunity for adolescents to participate in civic activities, such as community service or political volunteering. In this report, the authors expand this theoretical perspective by arguing that programs to promote positive citizenship may need to begin by focusing on: social interactions in youths' lives, such as interactions with parents and peers and on the culture in which youth are raised. The authors hypothesize that these informal interactions socialize or "prime" youth to have the motivation and values that subsequently lead to positive citizenship behaviors. To examine their hypothesis, the authors collected data during a period judged to be one which afforded an opportunity to participate in a positive citizenship activity salient to a large percentage of the sample population. The authors conclude that their findings contribute to the field of youth civic engagement by providing more concrete evidence for the unique effects that informal social interactions have on youth, above and beyond previous citizenship engagement, religiosity, parental education, ethnicity and gender. Additionally, the authors conclude that early adolescents who have altruistic values and a motivation to better society are more likely to engage in citizenship activities later in adolescence. More specifically for African American youth, ethnic-related experiences and attitudes that are salient or matter to the youths' self-concepts appear to be important predictors of later citizenship engagement. From this finding, the authors theorize the key component of ethnic socialization to be the salience of the socialization and the subsequent citizenship activity to the youth's self-concept. The results are discussed with regard to program and policy development as well as future research directions. (Contains 1 figure and 6 tables.) [This report was produced by the Center for Information and Research on Civic Learning and Engagement (CIRCLE).]

Using the yardsticks of independence and equality, an analysis of the literature on youth from a citizenship perspective can track youth's citizenship status and capacity to become full citizens. For young people, education is an avenue to either exclusion or independence and equality. For example, dropouts are more likely to live in poverty, and economic independence is considered key to achieving full citizenship. Exclusion exists in the school system, as schools continue to stream young women into traditional career paths and allow racial discrimination. Schools fail to provide the knowledge and capacity to make informed, intelligent choices about substance abuse and sexuality. Access to education, student debt, and labor market conditions delay economic independence. Young people face discrimination due to age and membership in a particular community. Examples of differential treatment are found in the areas of work, medicine, social services, and legal system. Their right to protection from harm is infringed upon most by the transportation system and societal problems related to gender, poverty, and marginalization. Having hope for the future and feelings of belonging influence youth participation in politics and resistance to marginalization through formation of subcultures and via political protest. The notion of precariousness best captures the experience of youth citizenship with respect to exercise of rights and responsibilities, access, and belonging. (Appendixes include a 271-item bibliography and roundtable summary.) (YLB)

A dynamic model of decisions to work, invest in human capital, and commit crime was developed and examined. By making all three activities endogenous, the model explains why older, more intelligent, and more educated workers tend to commit fewer property crimes of some types than others. The model includes the following predictions: (1) policies providing education, training, and work subsidies can reduce criminal activity; however, short-term wage subsidies only temporarily reduce crime at the expense of future crime rates; (2) a rise in youth crime should accompany the recent rise in returns to skill, whereas most adult crime rates may rise or fall; and (3) law enforcement policies increase education, training, and labor supply while reducing criminal activity. When the model's testable implications were studied by analyzing data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY), Current Population Survey (CPS), and Uniform Crime Reports (UCR), both ability and high school graduation were found to significantly reduce criminal participation among young men in the NLSY. Evidence from the UCR and CPS indicated that states with higher high school graduation rates and more severe punishment policies have lower index property crime rates. (Fourteen tables/figures are included. The bibliography lists 42 references.) (MN)

This paper represents a pooling of diverse perspectives and experiences of four organizations concerned that the current block grant structure of funding for social and family support services will not adequately improve the social services system or the lives of children and families. Focusing on ways in which the current re-examination of federal funding could be used to advance the family support agenda, the aim of these groups is to create a responsive, effective, accountable, family-supportive, and community-based system that actively supports children, youth, and families. The proposed block grant system--the Personal Responsibility Act (PRA)--will not achieve the goals of improving the responsiveness, effectiveness, and fiscal accountability of public services, nor will it improve the outlook for children, youth, and families. Instead, the PRA will undermine these goals by eliminating several entitlement programs for low-income families, allowing decisions by certain states to hurt the entire country, and providing no protection against re-regulation of the block grant programs. An alternative to the current block grant concept, which would utilize a "blending" of similar programs, combining the purposes and funding of these smaller programs into larger categories, is proposed that could help achieve these goals and capitalize on the chance to help children, youth, and families. (BGC)

The National Household Education Survey (NHES) is a telephone survey of the noninstitutionalized civilian population of the United States that collects data on educational issues that are best explored through contact with households rather than with institutions. The NHES has been conducted in 1991, 1993, 1995, and 1996. In the 1996 NHES (NHES:96), the topical components were parent/family involvement in education and civic involvement. This working paper presents information on the unit response rates, item response rates, weighting procedures, and imputation procedures in the NHES:96. The description of the response and completion rates in the first section, "Unit Response Rates," includes data on the rates for the Screener interview, the Parent/Family Involvement/Civic Involvement interview, the Youth Civic Involvement interview, and the Adult Civic Involvement interview. The next section, "Item Response and Imputation Procedures for the NHES:96," discusses reasons for nonresponse and ways to handle missing data. Imputation of missing data was done to develop complete variables used in developing sampling weights and to enable users to compute estimates more easily. The final section, "Weighting and Standard Error Calculation Procedures for the NHES:96," describes the procedures used to produce the weights for use in estimating characteristics from the NHES:96 sample and for estimating the sampling errors of those estimates. (Contains 39 tables and 7 references.) (SLD)

Employer attitudes toward youth, the youth labor market, and prospects for a national system of youth apprenticeships were studied through a survey of firms that had participated in local youth apprenticeship or cooperative education programs in seven U.S. cities and focus group discussions with small and large employers in eight U.S. communities. The studies established that the period between completing school and obtaining a good job is getting longer, the link between formal schooling and work is becoming more tenuous, and employers (especially small firms) are generally wary of any policy initiative designed to encourage the hiring and training of new workers. Employers were reluctant to initiate youth apprenticeship programs given the present labor surplus/job shortage. They generally felt that youths lack discipline, good work attitudes, and communication skills and that schools do not prepare youth for employment. Screening was employers' dominant concern regarding participation in a youth apprenticeship program. Focusing national attention on the absence of good jobs for young people and emphasizing flexibility in any policies developed were concluded to be the keys to improving the school-to-work transition. (MN)

Working diligently, living frugally, and restraining one's lusts and appetites within defensible boundaries have often been classified as middle class values. A growing concern of the U.S. public is the dysfunctional conduct of many of those dependent upon its support. However, society must demonstrate persuasively that rectitude pays. Society also has an obligation to make obstacles surmountable and the prospects of success believable. No available database contains information flowing directly from questions formulated to test the economic impacts of personal rectitude. Analysis of data from the youth cohort of the National Longitudinal Studies of Labor Market Outcomes suggests that family breakup, teen and unwed parentage, illegal activity, substance abuse, and deficient educational attainment all constitute obstacles to obtaining sustained employment and substantial earnings. Individuals who conduct themselves with recititude are seen as more likely to emerge from poverty than those who do not. A number of disincentives discourage acceptable conduct: lack of access to employment and limited payoff, lack of access to schools that offer necessary preparation for postsecondary education and limited payoff, incentives to teen pregnancy, poverty as an obstacle to marriage, drugs, peer influence, parent influences, health obstacles, and crime and corrections. Positive reinforcements to strengthen incentives for rectitude are strengthening families, pregnancy prevention, avoiding drug involvement, "sticks and carrots," schools, and employment and training. (Contains 104 references.) (YLB)

Apprenticeship is the main avenue to self-employment in micro-enterprises and thus a cornerstone of informal sector development in West Africa. Survey results for Ibadan, Lome, Dakar, Niamey, and other cities demonstrate that apprenticeship as practiced by informal sector artisans is often very similar from one country to the next. Dropout rates are estimated at 20-25%. Micro-enterprises involved in apprenticeable trades produce, on average, one "graduate" per year. Apprenticeship is not only for young men. Females apprentice in female-dominated trades. Survey data confirm that apprentices tend to be better educated than their masters. A majority select their trade because it was something they had always wanted to do. Masters are often selected because they are relatives or family acquaintances. Costs of apprenticeship vary considerably among and within trades and from one country to another depending on demand and whether the master is a relative. Apprenticeship usually takes 3 or 4 years, and working hours are long. Apprentices learn primarily by watching their master and being "corrected" when they err. Usually, masters follow a training plan. Apprentices learn technical skills as well as management and organization skills. Three of four apprentices state they want to create their own establishment; many seek wage employment at first. Intervention options should include measures aimed at apprentices or at masters. (Appendixes include 10 statistical tables.) (YLB)