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Water consumption, energy use, and carbon emission are three related key anthropogenic impacts on the natural environment. China is the largest carbon emitter and energy consumer, with the serious unevenly distributed water resources. Therefore, investigating the water–energy–carbon (WEC) nexus is important for China's environmental footprint reduction. This study explores the relation between water utilization, energy consumption, and carbon emission in China, based on a multiregional input–output (MRIO) analysis. The WEC nexus is discussed comprehensively in consideration of the utilization of water and energy and the emission of carbon, as well as the trade to and from and the consumption activities in different sectors and provinces. Results show that water, energy, and carbon present significant consistency in production and consumption processes. Sectors with higher consumption coefficients dominate the transfer of virtual WEC. Although virtual WEC mainly transfers from less developed regions to relatively developed regions, Category 1 (i.e., WEC all import) and category 2 (i.e., WEC disaccord) present opposite results to and category 3 (i.e., WEC all export) provinces in terms of W–E and W–C nexus. The net water and energy transfers are significantly positively correlated in category 1 provinces, whereas both sides are negatively correlated in category 2 and 3 provinces. This phenomenon also exists in the relationship between net water and carbon transfers. The virtual water, as well as energy and carbon export pressures are dispersed in these export provinces. Findings of this study are expected to assist the government in decreasing the environmental footprints and achieve sustainable development in China.

The water exported indirectly by sending products to other countries,or vice versa, is called a virtual water flow and this can be measuredthrough water footprint (WF) calculations, which represent theembedded water needed to manufacture a product. This presentstudy aims to analyze the virtual water flow and the WF of the mainproducts exported by municipalities in the state of Ceará in the year2019, in order to enhance the management of the state’s waterresources. Analytical hierarchy process (AHP), the most commonlyused multicriteria decision-making method in the world, was usedto determine which product is more sustainably produced by themunicipalities of Ceará, with the criteria: WF, price, and volumeexported. The alternatives are at least two of the seven categories ofproducts exported by the state where the “fruit or vegetable juices”class was preferred as the most sustainable. It was found that mostcities in the state that export agricultural products use only onebasin, which can lead to very low reservoir levels, while the otherhydrographic basins in the state are underused. It is worth noting thatthe Metropolitan Basin concentrates on 11 out of 32 municipalitiesthat export abroad and that it is responsible for supplying more than4,074,730 inhabitants, according to Brazilian Institute of Geographyand Statistics (IBGE, 2019). A água exportada indiretamente pelo envio de produtos a outros países,ou vice versa, chama-se fluxo de água virtual e pode ser mensurado porcálculos de pegada hídrica, que representam a água embutida necessáriapara a fabricação de um produto. O presente estudo teve o objetivo deanalisar o fluxo de água virtual e a pegada hídrica dos principais produtosexportados por municípios do estado do Ceará no ano de 2019, a fim depotencializar o gerenciamento dos recursos hídricos do estado. Utilizouseo analytical hierarchy process (AHP), método de tomada de decisãomulticritério mais usado no mundo, aqui escolhido para determinar qualo produto mais sustentável produzido pelos municípios do Ceará, comos critérios: pegada hídrica, preço e volume exportado. As alternativassão pelo menos duas das sete categorias de produtos exportados peloestado, e a classe de “sucos de frutas ou vegetais” foi preferida comoa mais sustentável. Constatou-se que a maioria das cidades do estadoque exportam produtos de origem agropecuária faz uso de apenasuma bacia, o que pode acarretar níveis muito baixos de reservatório,enquanto as outras bacias hidrográficas do estado são subusadas. Vale apena salientar que a Bacia Metropolitana concentra 11 de 32 municípiosque exportam para o exterior e é responsável pelo abastecimentode mais de 4.074.730 habitantes, segundo o Instituto Brasileiro deGeografia e Estatística (2019).

To define the complicated driving mechanisms of virtual water flow (VWF) in China's main grains production, this study firstly uses the entropy method and a K-means clustering approach to classify the driving types of VWF based on the data from 31 provinces in the mainland of China, and then applies the PLS structural equation model to analyze the driving mechanisms of VWF in four representative provinces or municipalities(Zhejiang, Heilongjiang, Xinjiang and Shanghai)selected by the classified driving types. The results show that the driving types of VWF can be divided into four types, namely, ecology-economy, ecology-environment, ecology-water use, and comprehensive type. In the four typical regions at provincial level, the social factors directly affect the VWF, and reversely it has a direct impact on the nature, environment and economy of the above four regions. In particular, the water use has a direct impact on the VWF in Heilongjiang attached to the ecologic-environmental type. The findings of this paper manifest that the social indicators rather than the indicators in water use play an important role in the VWF, that is, our findings further testify the status quo of China's VWF: the regions with rich water resources import the virtual water while the regions with poor water resources export the virtual water. Finally, for promoting the rational flow of virtual water we propose some corresponding adjustment countermeasures and suggestions that provide a theoretical basis for the rational allocation and management of water resources.

Chinese water resources are limited and unevenly distributed across space, making the inter-provincial virtual water trade increasingly prosperous. Many studies have focused on the impact of virtual water trade on regional water scarcity, but little consideration has been paid to the impact of water scarcity on virtual water trade, particularly in China. To fill this gap, we addressed the Chinese inter-provincial virtual water trade in 2012, 2015 and 2017, and we combined a multi-regional input-output analysis with a gravity model supplemented by the instrumental variable method. Our results indicated water pressure values were higher in northern areas, and provinces with extreme water stress were distributed in the eastern coastal areas. Additionally, virtual water tends to be exported from water-poor regions to water-rich regions. The results of the gravity model show that the Chinese inter-provincial virtual water trade is significantly related to water scarcity. We found that virtual water flow is positively correlated with the water scarcity of exporting regions, such as Xinjiang, Heilongjiang, Anhui, and Jiangsu, and it is negatively correlated with the water scarcity of importing regions, such as Shandong, Guangdong and Zhejiang. Therefore, water scarcity affects the virtual water trade flow, and the trade in turn exacerbates the regional water shortage in the northern and eastern coast of China. In addition, the virtual water trade is affected by socio-economic factors and environmental factors. We suggest that related policies should be developed to terminate this malignant cycle. The virtual water trade should be guided towards becoming more adaptable to sustainable development rather than allowing for water-scarce areas to pursue economic development at the cost of scarce water resources.

Systematic reviews are a more complete, repeatable, and less biased form of literature reviews leading to evidence-based conclusions. A systematic review was conducted on articles that have investigated the trade of virtual gray water (VGW) and its effect on freshwater pollution in importer and exporter partners. Scopus and ScienceDirect databases were searched for journal articles covering VGW trade on global, international, and national scales. The relevant articles then were selected and using snowball approach led to more relevant articles. Then, the required data were extracted and recorded. A total of 34 articles met the inclusion criteria, of which 13 articles studied VGW trade on a national scale, 13 on an international scale, and the rest on a global scale. The present study developed a critical appraisal tool to evaluate the methodological quality of the included articles. The results of the critical appraisal showed that none of the included articles can undergo quantitative synthesis. Research gaps regarding VGW trade were observed in the water-scarce developing countries that need to be covered. One of the policy implications to reduce pollution impacts on water bodies would be agricultural and industrial reforms by VGW exporters. Besides, changes in economic structure in both sides of the trade, and goods or water consumption patterns, especially by VGW importers, can also play an important role in water resource conservation. Therefore, international and multi-stockholder cooperation should be taken to alleviate the environmental impacts of the VGW trade.

[ES] El aguacate (Persea americana), es un producto agrícola cada vez más demandado a nivel global, tanto para consumo en fresco como para usos industriales, al ser considerado un producto saludable por su elevado contenido en vitaminas y minerales. Esta creciente demanda mundial ha tenido un impacto económico positivo en las regiones en que se cultiva, pero también ha provocado la aparición de problemas a nivel ambiental y socioeconómico, que pueden llegar a poner en peligro la propia sostenibilidad del cultivo, así como de los sistemas hídricos de los que se extraen los recursos necesarios para regarlos. El análisis de las dinámicas actuales y las proyecciones futuras del mercado global del aguacate, junto con el estudio de su huella y necesidades hídricas, permite ver las implicaciones que desde el punto de vista hídrico tiene la estructura actual del mercado, estableciéndose una serie de patrones claros en los movimientos de agua virtual desde países productores generalmente pobres en recursos hídricos, a países consumidores generalmente ricos en dichos recursos. Tras el establecimiento de este marco general, el estudio de la problemática y las consecuencias del cultivo intensivo en tres zonas concretas situadas en países productores con perfiles distintos (México, Chile y España), permite extraer una serie de etapas comunes, que se repiten de forma sistemática y que muestran la existencia de un patrón similar que se repite a pesar de las particularidades de cada zona. El caso del aguacate representa un buen caso de estudio para demostrar como un fuerte crecimiento en la demanda de un determinado producto agrícola puede traducirse en un crecimiento descontrolado de su cultivo intensivo, que tiene como consecuencia problemas en materia hídrica, medioambiental y socioeconómica si las Administraciones Públicas no introducen políticas de control y limitación tanto sobre el cultivo, como sobre el uso de los recursos disponibles., [EN] Avocado (Persea Americana), is an agricultural product that is increasingly in demand globally, both for fresh consumption and for industrial uses, as it is considered a healthy product due to its high content of vitamins and minerals. This growing global demand has had a positive economic impact in the regions where it grows, but it has also caused the appearance of environmental and socio-economic problems, which can endanger the very sustainability of the crop itself and also of the water systems from which the necessary resources are extracted to irrigate them. The analysis of the current dynamics and future projections of the global avocado market, together with the study of its water footprint and water demands, allows us to see the implications that the current structure of the market has from the water point of view, establishing a series of clear patterns in virtual water movements from producer countries generally poor in water resources, to consumer countries generally rich in said resources. After establishing this general framework, the study of intensive farming problems and its consequences in three specific areas located in producing countries with different profiles (Mexico, Chile and Spain), allows us to draw a series of common stages, which are repeated systematically and that show the existence of a similar pattern that is repeated despite the particularities of each area. The case of avocado represents a good case study to demonstrate how a strong growth in the demand for a certain agricultural product can turn into an uncontrolled growth of its intensive farming, which results in water, environmental and socio-economic problems if Public Administration does not put in place control and limitation policies, both on cultivation and on the use of available resources.

The present study aimed to assess water footprint in the production and export of rice in India. From recent few years, the water footprint conception in full swing to inward detection around the world. The amplified attention in the water footprint has impelled the trade of commodities between countries. Water footprint in the rice field is a sign of water use that exhibits direct and indirect water usage in the rice field. Rice is an important food crop in India. It accesses the flows of water virtually between countries/regions of the world to illustrate the dependency of countries/regions on water resources with other countries/regions under diverse feasible futures. Hence, it is gaining consequence to calculate the water foot print in production as well as export of rice. The Indian rice production and export of rice was calculated by using international trade and domestic production data. The study results indicated that the global footprint of rice production was 235774 Mm3 per ton which was 53 % of green water footprint, 41 % of blue water footprint and 6 % of grey water footprint for 2018-19. The virtual water flowed in trade was 24354 Mm3/year and the percolation was 16924 Mm3/year since rice is a more water consuming crop. The share of basmati and non-basmati trade accounted was 16 % and 42 %, respectively. Virtual water trade in rice can be minimized by exporting less water demand and high-value crops, proper water harvesting structures and other agronomic practices.

This article examines the evolution and potential of the water agenda of BRICS. The members of this international association of major countries of South America, Eurasia, Asia and Africa are rich in water resources and population. The development of water resources extends beyond their borders to projects in other countries through the activities of a major development institution, the New Development Bank of BRICS. Such conditions suggest some anticipation of a global and comprehensive view on the part of BRICS on the issues relating to water resources. However, the hypothesis of this article is opposite: despite the unique potential of the BRICS water strategy, it remains non-specific, focused on the lower common denominators for the member countries such as cleanliness, sanitation and water management. To account for this, the authors take the position that the bureaucratic logic of basic common interest downgrades strategic vision. This is reflected in the growing gap between the multifaceted nature of the issues related to water resources in the world and the narrowly specialized approach of BRICS association which perceives water de facto without its resource and global function. To study this, the authors analyze the water portfolios of the BRICS member countries and compare the national water agendas based on an analysis of policy documents. They then systematize water initiatives under the auspices of the BRICS and, finally, calculate virtual water flows and their structure between the BRICS countries using agricultural products trade as an example. The conducted analysis allows the authors to identify a wide gap between the current and potential water agenda of the BRICS. The authors then propose a number of initiatives that can create added value for the BRICS as an association both for its member countries and for developing countries facing water resource challenges. The authors assert that such a new approach, based on a profound understanding of the resource function of water as a commodity with global value, has all the potential to be implemented by BRICS.

International audience; Water scarcity problem has become a major constraint in energy development. In this paper, we calculated virtual water flows and virtual water scarcity risk transfers driven by interprovincial energy consumption in China using multi-regional input–output analysis. The results of virtual water scarcity risk transfers show that major virtual water scarcity risk importers will be the “victims” suffering the consequences of increasing virtual water scarcity risks in the national energy system. For major virtual water scarcity risk exporters, they will transfer virtual water scarcity risks to downstream provinces along energy supply chains, threatening the stability of the national energy system. The promotion of energy policies and the energy consumption of developed regions make the water-deficient northwest regions export a large amount of water resources to the east and south regions. Therefore, it is necessary to fully consider local water scarcity and evaluate the impact on water environment before the construction of energy bases. Our findings can be used to provide a reference value for policymakers to develop new energy strategies and manage water resources sustainably.

Understanding the idea and strategy of virtual water trade is critical for formulating informed policies to increase water usage efficiency at various levels. The implementation of the concept of virtual water as a creative water-saving technique in Egypt, however, is still in need of comprehensive testing, research, and feasibility evaluation. Egypt also requires extensive investigations, surveys, and feasibility evaluations. At present, as a percentage of water supplies, Egypt's net virtual water import has risen to 23.55 percent. The primary concern here is to apply virtual water as a strategy that meets the interests and goals set out in Egypt's National Water Management Plan. The key concern of this paper is investigating the general use of virtual water as a water-saving technique in Egypt. It outlines the water scarcity problem and its indicators, supply and demand for water resources in Egypt, and water scarcity forces in Egypt. Going to virtual water in economic ideas history, the definitions of virtual water and water footprint, then virtual water as an analytical instrument and a political strategy. Finally, water saving from virtual water trade and its advantages and disadvantages in Egypt. In order to follow the introduction of the virtual water definition in the national water management policy of Egypt, A clear vision and understanding of its advantages and disadvantages according to the conditions of Egypt is required. Further analysis and a thorough understanding of the impacts and experiences on the local social, economic, environmental, cultural, natural and political situation is needed for this new definition as a policy choice in Egypt.

Water resources are becoming scarce and must be preserved. The significant use of water is linked to agriculture in general and to livestock in particular. Very little research in semi-arid regions has been devoted to assessing the contribution of ruminants to water scarcity. This contribution explores the relationships between dairy farming and the various water resources available in an ecosystem with climatic constraints. To meet future food demand while sustainably managing the available land and water resources, dairy farm systems in semi-arid regions must adapt in response to climate and socio-economic change. In this study, we focus on the south Mediterranean region to analyze the key factors influencing water productivity in dairy farming, especially in context characterized by water scarcity. In order to characterize the relationship between dairy cattle breeding and water resources, a monitoring of 40 dairy cattle stables has been carried out in a semi-arid region. The technical and economic parameters of each farm were evaluated: the use of water according to their origins to the production of fodder by source, the contribution of virtual water off the farm, the total fodder biomass, feeding system practiced on the farms and the performances achieved. Analysis of the data indicates that productivity of fodder in dry matter differ between the two systems with values of the order of 12520 to 17188 kg/ha (p

The energy-water nexus describes the requirement of water-for-energy and energy-for-water. The consumption of water in the production and generation of energy resources is also deemed virtual water. Pairing the virtual water estimates for energy with international trade data creates a virtual water trade network, facilitating analysis of global water resources management. In this database, we identify the virtual water footprints for the trade of eleven different energy commodities including fossil fuels, biomass, and electricity. Additionally, we provide the necessary scripts for downloading and pairing trade data with the virtual water footprints to create a virtual water trade network. The resulting database contains country-to-country virtual water trade from 2010–2018, broken down by commodity. The purpose of this data descriptor is to provide detailed methods and validation of the dataset beyond the complementary research publication. The resulting database provides opportunities to understand global energy-related water demands and advance future global water resources research., Measurement(s) water footprint of energy trade • water footprint of electricity Technology Type(s) digital curation • data transformation Factor Type(s) international trade • electricity generation portfolios • country • year of data collection Sample Characteristic - Location global Machine-accessible metadata file describing the reported data: 10.6084/m9.figshare.13187489

This research measures the impact of water scarcity on agricultural economic development and economic development indicators in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia during 1995–2018. By examining the current status of available water resources and their uses, and estimating a model to study the impact of water scarcity on agricultural economic development. The study relied on descriptive and standard economic analysis to estimate the proposed regression model. It found that a 10% change in the amount of water resources available leads to a 5.1% change in the same direction of the crop area. A 10% change in the estimated crop area results in a 1.5% change in the same direction of the total agricultural output value. A 10% change in employment and agricultural loans leads to a change in the same direction of the aggregate agricultural output value of 5.1% and 7.2%, respectively. A 10% change in the total value of the estimated agricultural output leads to a 2.9% change in the same direction of GDP. Thus, a lack of water resources will decrease the crop area and have a negative impact on the value of agricultural output, thereby impacting GDP. We therefore include policy recommendations for the conservation of water resources: The government should stop the export of virtual water, particularly for water-depleting products; an economic accounting framework for water should be introduced to monitor the amount of water in excess of the water codification for various crops prevailing in the crop composition.

The increasing population, improving living standards, and expanding economic activities are responsible for rising water demands. In recent decades, the imbalance between water supply and demand has become increasingly prominent. Coupled with the unreasonable use of water resources, this has led to serious water scarcity problems that affect the sustainable development of modern society. Under this background, water scarcity has become an important environmental issue for our sustainable planet. Water scarcity is affected by regional water resource endowments and the ways in which water resources are developed and utilized by human beings. Quantity-induced water scarcity occurs when the quantity of water resources is insufficient. Meanwhile, pollution can cause water scarcity as the services provided by polluted water are not equivalent to that of clean water. Quality-induced water scarcity occurs when the pollutants exceed the environmental carrying capacity. Since Marlin Falkenmark first proposed the concept and assessment method of water scarcity in the 1980s, water scarcity assessment has developed for nearly 40 years. With the development of new theories, progress has been made, such as development of different approaches for assessing water scarcity, identification of influencing factors of water scarcity, revealing the formation mechanism, and exploring strategies to cope with water scarcity. As a result, water scarcity assessment has experienced an evolutionary pathway from a one-dimensional model emphasizing only quantity-induced water scarcity to a two-dimensional model (considering both quantity-induced and quality-induced water scarcity), toward a three-dimensional (3D) model (or 3D water scarcity theory) that considers water quantity, water quality, and environmental flows simultaneous. Based on a systematic review of water scarcity assessment in the literature, this study demonstrates the 3D water scarcity theory and elaborates on its basic concepts, principles, and core methods. The 3D water scarcity theory was first proposed by Chinese scholars and then accepted by international scholars. The quantity-induced water scarcity is assessed based on the ratio of water consumption to water availability, and the quality-induced water scarcity is quantified by comparing gray water footprint (the amount of water required to dilute pollutants in wastewater sufficiently to meet environmental water quality standards) with local available water resources. Environmental flow requirements are quantified based on the characteristics of climatic and hydrological conditions rather than the traditionally adopted simple approach by assuming that they are equal to 80% of water resources. Hence, the 3D water scarcity theory and assessment method can consider water quantity, water quality, and environmental flow requirements comprehensively. Finally, four main future research directions of water scarcity assessment are summarized: The further development and improvement of the theoretical framework of 3D water scarcity, applications of the assessment methods on multiple spatial scales, explicit consideration of the impacts of physical and virtual water flow, and mechanism of the evolution of water scarcity. 3D water scarcity is a key to achieving sustainable and harmonious development between humanity and water resources, and its assessment framework can break through the limitations of the traditional one- or two-dimensional models. Water scarcity theory provides methodological support for measuring the state of water resources on global, national, and regional scales, and it will help formulate appropriate water mitigation measures for integrated water resources management.

Diplomacy is the art and skill of managing international relations through negotiations between representatives of states or agencies. Water diplomacy is an innovative approach and strategic tool to resolve water issues at local and trans-boundary scales when water conflicts rise in sharing water resources. Complex water supply and sharing issues arise from the existence of multiple stakeholders such as agriculture, industry, urban and domestic users, environmental use, and others competing for scarce water. Water diplomacy may contribute to solving a variety of water conflicts and in this sense is a tool for sustainable water resources management. This paper presents a review of water diplomacy focusing on various themes such as the vitality of water as a resource, virtual water, water conflicts, international water law, and management of trans-boundary waters that are reviewed in this paper in the context of searching for cogent water diplomacy strategies. This work’s findings show that conflicts about trans-boundary waters are more common in developing countries than in developed countries. The latter countries have developed trans-boundary agreements, which may serve as guidelines to developing countries in some cases. Virtual water may prevent future water conflicts by reducing water demand and water stresses and providing suitable conditions for negotiation between countries. Capacity building, training in cooperation, and negotiation are means of averting water conflicts.

Background Many countries are experiencing significant water scarcity and related problems due to limited availability, uneven distribution of water resources and high demand. Therefore, increasing water use efficiency and better management of existing resources have become substantially important. The agricultural sector is responsible for around 80% of global freshwater withdrawal. Wheat is one of the most important crops having large volumes of virtual water (VW) which is defined as the hidden water embedded in the products. Methods Water footprint (WF) is an indicator showing the total volume of freshwater consumption of a product or process. Blue water concept is defined as the amount of exploited surface and groundwater resources. Green water represents the total volume of rainwater allocated by the product. WF methodology brings a new approach to inter-regional water use and management by quantifying the amount of direct and indirect water use and tracing the hidden links between production, consumption and trade. The main objective of this study is to analyze Turkey’s national blue and green WF of wheat production, consumption and virtual water trade between 2008 and 2019. Detailed province-based quantification of wheat’s water exploitation is provided using spatial interpolation method. Results Total consumptive WF of wheat production and consumption of Turkey is calculated as 39.3 and 48.1 Gm3/year, respectively. The average blue and green VW contents of wheat production through Turkey are assessed to be 1161 and 748 m3/ton, respectively. The water footprint parameters of each province are calculated and discussed using climatic and agricultural data. VW transfer of Turkey’s international wheat trade is also analyzed. Total national water saving is calculated as 7.8 Gm3/year which is mostly imported from Russia. Global VW deficit due to international wheat trade is calculated to be 1.76 Gm3/year. Conclusion Despite its high contribution to global wheat production, increasing population and strong wheat-based diet, quantitative, comparative and up-to-date analyses of the blue and green WF and the VW transfer of wheat production in Turkey are not available. This study contributes to the national and international water management and planning studies to increase the water allocation efficiency of agricultural products.

UNICIENCIA Vol. 34, N° 1, pp. 189-203. Enero-Junio, 2020 URL: www.revistas.una.ac.cr/uniciencia La cuantificación y medición de la huella hídrica permite analizar y tener un control sobre la gestión ambiental de la institución, además de tomar acciones que integren la totalidad de la población universitaria, orientando todos los esfuerzos hacia un desarrollo sustentable. El objetivo de la investigación es cuantificar y calcular la huella hídrica azul institucional para el periodo 2012-2016, con el fin de analizar y comparar, así, su comportamiento en el tiempo, de acuerdo con las variables contempladas en el cálculo, consumo de agua, consumo de combustible fósil, papel y energía eléctrica (puesto que se consideran fundamentales para el desenvolvimiento y funcionalidad de actividades institucionales). Se aplicó la metodología de Hoekstra y Chapagain, expuesta en el Manual de evaluación de la huella hídrica; con los factores de huella hídrica y agua virtual, tomados de Water Footprint Network, se obtuvo la cantidad correspondiente a cada rubro. Como resultado, entre el 2012 y el 2015, se llegó a una disminución del 8 % de la huella hídrica, pasando de 966 432 m3 a 888 693 m3. Mientras tanto, en el 2016, se alcanzó un leve aumento, dando un valor total de 891 976 m3. Quantifying and measuring the water footprint allows for the analysis and control over the environmental management of the institution and helps integrate college population, thus directing all efforts towards a sustainable development. The objective of this research is to quantify and calculate the institutional blue water footprint for the 2012-2016 period to analyze and compare its behavior over time, according to the variables included in the calculation such as consumption of water, fossil fuel, reams of paper and electrical energy (since they are important for the function and performance of institutional activities). The methodology applied was the one described by Hoekstra and Chapagain in the Water Footprint Assessment Manual, as well as the water footprint and virtual water factors taken from the Water Footprint Network. The corresponding amount was obtained for each item. As a result, between 2012 and 2015, the Institutional Water Footprint decreased 8%, from 966 432 m3 to 888 693 m3, while in 2016 it slightly increased to 891 976 m3. A quantificação e mensuração da pegada hídrica permite analisar e controlar a gestão ambiental da instituição, além de realizar ações que integram toda a população universitária, orientando todos os esforços em direção ao desenvolvimento sustentável. O objetivo da pesquisa é quantificar e calcular a pegada hídrica azul institucional entre 2012 e 2016, a fim de analisar e comparar, assim, seu comportamento ao longo do tempo, de acordo com as variáveis contempladas no cálculo, como o consumo de água , o consumo de combustíveis fósseis, resmas de papel e energia eléctrica (por serem considerados essenciais para o desenvolvimento e a funcionalidade das atividades institucionais). A metodologia de Hoekstra e Chapagain, estabelecida no Manual de Avaliação da Pegada Hídrica, foi aplicada e, com os fatores de pegada hídrica e água virtual, obtidos da Water Footprint Network, foi obtido o valor correspondente a cada item. Como resultado, entre 2012 e 2015, foi alcançada uma redução de 8% na pegada hídrica, de 966 432 m3 para 888 693 m3. Enquanto isso, em 2016, foi alcançado um ligeiro aumento, totalizando 891 976 m3. Universidad Nacional, Costa Rica Universidad Nacional, Costa Rica

Global water resources are a critical value for the future of humankind. Conflicts and wars seem to rise because of such critical resources. While water-scarce countries are under extreme pressure on the long-term scale, also water-rich countries in Europe, such as Austria, face local conflicts of interest between water supply, tourism, agriculture, hydropower and ecology, for instance. Higher Education must address these conflicts and the new concepts of geoethics offer the conceptional thinking to do so. Based on educational resources for Higher Education that have been developed in the field of “Geoethics and Water Management” under the Erasmus+ co-funded project GOAL (Geoethics Outcomes and Awareness Learning), selected water-related conflicts are discussed. The cases selected for developing the educational resources are water use conflicts and geoethical aspects of hydropower plants. The educational resources include a subsequent procedure for applying them with students. Outcomes from the educational resources show that issues related to water management often create geoethical conflicts and dilemmas, and an interconnection between several Sustainable Development Goals can be established. Applying the educational resources shall enable geoscientists to contribute towards sustainable development of Earth’s future by a more holistic view.

Hızlı kentleşme, kişi başına düşen su tüketiminin artması ve gelişen endüstriye paralel olarak su kirliliğinin artması, bölgesel su kaynakları üzerinde daha etkili ölçüm, yönetim ve karar mekanizmalarının işleme alınmasını gerekli kılmıştır. Su ayak izi (SA) kavramı, özellikle su kaynakları yönetimine destek sağlamak için ekolojik ve karbon ayak izlerine benzer şekilde son yıllarda literatüre kazandırılan yeni bir parametredir. Herhangi bir alan veya ürünün su ayak izi, üretim süreci boyunca doğrudan veya dolaylı olarak işleme alınan veya kirletilen su kaynaklarının toplam hacmini ifade eder. Bu çalışmanın temel amacı, 2008-2019 yılları arasında Diyarbakır ilinde tarım, hayvancılık, endüstriyel üretim ve evsel kullanımından kaynaklanan mavi ve yeşil su ayak izlerinin detaylı olarak analiz edilmesidir. Buna göre, bölgenin ortalama SA değeri 3,43 milyar m3/yıl olarak hesaplamıştır. İl genelindeki su kaynaklarının büyük çoğunluğunun % 86’lık bir oranla tarımsal ürünlerin yetiştirilmesinde kullanıldığı, mevcut taze suyun % 49’unun yüzey ve yeraltı suyundan tedarik edildiği ve kurak sezonda bu oranın % 62’ye kadar yükseldiği tespit edilmiştir. İlde yetiştirilen tarımsal ürünlerin sanal su muhtevaları ve toplam su kullanımları ayrıca hesaplanmış ve tartışılmıştır. Mevcut çalışma, ülkemizde yapılan ilk bölgesel SA analizlerinden biri olup, tarımsal planlama, evsel ve endüstriyel su tahsisi, atık yönetimi ve su kaynaklarının sürdürülebilirliği gibi konularda katkıda bulunması beklenmektedir.

In recent years, the rapid economic development and population growth of the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region has led to a shortage of water resources provided by the natural water cycle. Quantitative expression of the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei water cycle model is essential for achieving coordinated regional development and solving the problem of water shortages. This study employed a combination of statistical analysis and GIS technology to calculate water demand, virtual water content, blue and green water supply, and water resource demand gap in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region, using data from the Water Resources Bulletin and the China Statistical Yearbook. The water resources structure of the Beijing–Tianjin– Hebei region from both "supply" and "demand" aspects has also been systematically investigated. Water demand was divided into two parts, "real" and "imaginary" components, and discussed as part of the dual water cycle model. The results of this research can provide a theoretical basis for the realization of scientific social water use and ecological environmental water use in the region, as well as the rational development and utilization of water resources.

The article introduces some of the general challenges of global water security (in the context of the availability of good quality water) and highlights the likely global impact of climate change, increasing pollution and population growth on water resources, including flooding and droughts, as outlined in recent studies. The nexus between water, food and energy is introduced, along with the concept of virtual water, and the desirability for society, industry and governments to consider water security in a global context. Cotton production and trading is considered as an example and how clothes purchased in a non-cotton producing country can have an adverse impact on the water quality and pollution levels in river basins in cotton producing countries and in any other countries further downstream in the river basin. The role and engagement of engineers is highlighted and how engineers can contribute significantly to addressing the challenges of Sustainable Development Goal 6, i.e., ‘ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all’.

Grain for Green project (GGP) initialed by China government since 1999 has achieved substantial achievements accompanied with surface runoff decrease in the Loess Plateau but impacts of large-scale afforestation on regional water resources are uncertain. Hence, the objective of this study is to explore the impact of land use change on generalized water resources and ecological water stress using blue and green water concept taking Yanhe River Basin as a case study. Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) is applied to quantify summary of green and blue water which is defined as generalized water resources, ecological water requirement of vegetation (forest and grass), agricultural water footprint and virtual water flow are considered as regional water requirements. Land use types of 1980 (scenario I), 2017 (scenario II) are input in SWAT model while keeps other parameters constant in order to isolate the influence of land use changes. Results show that average annual difference of blue, green and generalized water resources is −72.08 million m3, 24.34 million m3, −47.74 million m3 respectively when simulation results of scenario II subtracts scenario I and it presents that land use change caused by GGP leads to decrease in blue and generalized water resources whereas increase in green water resources. SURQ in scenario I is more than that in scenario IIin all the study period from 1980-2017, green water storage in scenario I is more than that in scenario II in all the study period except in 1998; whereas LATQ in scenario I is less than that in scenario II except in 2000 and 2015, GWQ in 1992, 2000 and 2015, green water flow in 1998. Blue water, green water storage and green water flow in scenario II is less than that in scenario I in the whole basin, 12.89 percent of the basin and 99.21 percent of the basin respectively. Total WF increases from 1995 to 2010 because forest WF increases significantly in this period though agricultural WF and grass WF decreases. Ecological water stress index has no obvious temporal change trend in both land use scenarios but ecological water stress index in scenario II is more than that in scenario I which illustrates that GGP leads to increase of ecological water stress from perspective of generalized water resources

Water scarcity is an emerging threat to food security and socioeconomic prosperity, and it is crucial to assess the response of crop production to water scarcity in large river basins. The water footprint, which takes into account water use in supply chains, provides a powerful tool for assessing the contributions of water resources within a certain region, by tracking the volume and structure of virtual water flows. In this study of the structure of the water footprint network from a complexity perspective, we reassessed the significance of water resources for crop services in a large river basin with a severe water shortage -the Yellow River Basin (YRB) of China. The temporal increase of the complexity index indicated that the Virtual Water out-Flows (VWF) from the YRB were becoming increasingly critical to China; i.e., the ability of YRB to produce crops boosted difficulty of its water being replaced by water exporting from other basins. Decomposition of complexity suggested that during the 1980s to 2000s, the temporally increased complexity was due mainly to the paucity of competitors and the increasing uniqueness of crops supporting VWF. This complexity deeply embedded the YRB into the footprints of a water network that facilitated further development with constrained water resources, but it also reinforced reliance from other regions on YRB’s scarce water. Based on this analysis, we therefore suggest that resource regulation should be carried out at an appropriate time to ensure both the ecological sustainability and high-quality development of river basins.

The security of water resources is of great importance to long-term sustainability. In order to better ensure the security of water resources, a significant link is to conduct water resources security evaluation, which should be considered from many perspectives as it involves natural reserves, social production, the efficiency of use, and environmental protection. In this paper, a fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process Sort (AHPSort) II-entropy weight (EW) method for regional water resources security evaluation is proposed based on the security of visible water and virtual water. Firstly, this paper takes into account the criterion of efficiency of water use in addition to two other criteria of quantity of water resources, pressure on water resources to establish a comprehensive water resources security evaluation system. Secondly, a combination method of hesitant fuzzy language judgment and entropy weight is employed to obtain the weight of each indicator. Thirdly, AHPSort II is used to classify the security levels of the evaluated regions, in which the security levels of regional water resources are divided into five levels. Furthermore, a case study on the cities of Hubei Province, China is conducted to show the applicability of the proposed method, the effectiveness, and reliability of the method are then verified by being compared with a subjective method and an objective method as well as sensitivity analysis. Finally, according to the comprehensive evaluation results, specific management suggestions for improving the water resources security in the case are put forward.

The worsening water scarcity has imposed a significant stress on food production in many parts of the world. This stress becomes more critical when countries seek self-sufficiency. A literature review shows that food self-sufficiency has not been assessed as the main factor in determining the optimal cultivation patterns. However, food self-sufficiency is one of the main policies of these countries and requires the most attention and concentration. Previous works have focused on the virtual water trade to meet regional food demand and to calculate trade flows. The potential of the trade network can be exploited to improve the cropping pattern to ensure food and water security. To this end, and based on the research gaps mentioned, this study develops a method to link intra-country trade networks, food security, and total water footprints (WFs) to improve food security. The method is applied in Iran, a water-scarce country. The study shows that 781 × 106 m3 of water could be saved by creating a trade network. Results of the balanced trade network are input to a multi-objective optimization model to improve cropping patterns based on the objectives of achieving food security and preventing water crises. The method provides 400 management scenarios to improve cropping patterns considering 51 main crops in Iran. Results show a range of improvements in food security (19–45%) and a decrease in WFs (2–3%). The selected scenario for Iran would reduce the blue water footprint by 1207 × 106 m3, and reduce the cropland area by 19 × 103 ha. This methodology allows decision makers to develop policies that achieve food security under limited water resources in arid and semi-arid regions.