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Despite its extensive use in, for example, the concentration and crystallization of proteins, the salting out phenomenon remains poorly understood, with many--sometimes contradictory--explanations found in the literature. Following our earlier work using isotope substitution neutron scattering on an aqueous tertiary butyl alcohol (TBA) with added NaCl that examined in detail the molecular-level interactions in the system, and suggested that attempts to understand salting out through ion perturbation of the non-polar hydration shell may not be appropriate, we report here on two further sets of high resolution structural experiments that detail the structural interactions between ion, solvent and amphiphile in a wider range of relevant systems. First, a set of X-ray absorption spectroscopy experiments probed the effects on the hydrophobic hydration shell of Kr of adding a range of different salts (specifically Na2SO4, NaClO4, NaCl, NaNO3 and Mg(ClO4)2). The bottom line from these experiments is that the hydration shell is essentially unaffected by the added ions, underlining further the stability of the shell to such perturbations. The second set of experiments was a further isotope substitution neutron scattering study of the molecular-level solution structures of aqueous TBA, this time for a range of different added ions (CsF, NaBr, and NaCl at three concentrations), for which we have in addition extracted equilibrium constants to quantify the relative strengths of the various interactions. From this second set of results, we can conclude again that the solvent structure is essentially unperturbed by both the various ions and the amphiphile, and also identify a number of ion-specific effects. Comparing our results with those obtained from simulations that are not constrained by the experimental data underlines how sensitive structural conclusions are to the assumed potential functions, and that drawing conclusions from simulations not constrained to fit experimental data can lead to seriously erroneous conclusions.

Neutron scattering with hydrogen/deuterium isotopic substitution techniques has been used to investigate the full range of structural interactions in a dilute 0.02 mol fraction solution of tertiary butanol in water, both in the absence and in the presence of a small amount of sodium chloride. Emphasis is given to the detailed pictures of the intermolecular interactions that have been derived using the empirical potential structure refinement technique. Analysis has been performed to the level of the spatial density distribution functions that illustrate the orientational dependence of the intermolecular interactions between all combinations of molecular and ionic components. The results show the key structural motifs involved in the interactions between the various components in a complex aqueous system. They underline the structural versatility of the water molecule in accommodating a range of different kinds of interactions while retaining its characteristic first-neighbour interaction geometry. Within this framework, the results highlight the complex interplay between the polar, non-polar and charged molecular interactions that exist in the system.

Since Kauzmann's seminal 1959 paper, the hydrophobic interaction has dominated thinking on the forces that control protein folding and stability. Despite its wide importance in chemistry and biology, our understanding of this interaction at the molecular level remains poor, with little experimental evidence to support the idea of water ordering close to a non-polar group that is at the centre of the standard model for the source of the entropic driving force. Developments over recent years in neutron techniques now enable us to see directly how a non-polar group actually affects the molecular structure of the water in its immediate neighbourhood. On the basis of such work on aqueous solutions of small alcohols, the generally accepted standard model is found to be wanting, and alternative sources of the entropic driving force are suggested. Moreover, the fact that we can now follow changes in hydrogen bonding as the alcohol concentration is varied gives us the possibility of explaining the concentration dependence of the enthalpy of mixing. Complementary studies of solute association on the mesoscopic scale show a rich concentration and temperature behaviour, which reflects a complex balance of polar and non-polar interactions. Unravelling the detailed nature of this balance in simple aqueous amphiphiles may lead to a better understanding of the forces that control biomolecular structural stability and interactions.

Salting out of amphiphiles from aqueous solution is a process of central importance in aqueous solution chemistry and of major application in the concentration of macromolecules and the crystallization of proteins. Despite its importance, our understanding of the mechanism is poor, there being no direct experimental evidence to support the several competing explanations in the literature. Using neutron diffraction with isotope substitution, we report a structural study of the effect of adding a simple salting out agent (NaCl) to a dilute solution of an amphiphile (t-butanol). The results show clearly that the anion is central to driving the changes in association of the amphiphile through the formation of an anion bridge between the polar ends of neighboring alcohol molecules. This further exposes the nonpolar surface of the amphiphile and suggests that further association may then occur through hydrophobic interaction. The mechanism uncovered is both different from those currently in the literature and relatively simple, and offers a possible route forward to understanding the variation in salting out efficacy of different ions as indicated by the Hofmeister or lyotropic series. © 2003 American Institute of Physics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]