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The utilization of hydrogen and hydrogen-based fuels is a promising option to reduce greenhouse gas emissions of heavy-duty vehicles. Here, the production of sustainable hydrogen plays a key role. Very promising is the production of hydrogen by means of water electrolysis that links fluctuating electricity production from renewable sources with sectors based on chemical energy carriers. Water electrolysis will be one of the key technologies to reduce the energy system transformation costs and to stabilize the electricity grid. Hydrogen can be used directly as a fuel in heavy-duty vehicles or converted with CO2 to fuels like methanol or Fischer-Tropsch products. Methanol can be used both as a fuel and as feedstock for further upgrading to fuels like dimethyl ether (DME), oxymethylene ether (OME), methanol-to-gasoline (MtG) and methanol-to-jet fuel. Recently, also the conversion of hydrogen with nitrogen to ammonia as fuel gains increasing interest in combustion engines. Beyond CO2 reduction exhaust gas emissions have also to be reduced significantly. CatVap® is an innovative fuel processing technology that enables efficient exhaust gas treatment in order to achieve near-zero emission mobility. In addition, hydrogen can be used to operate fuel cell power trains, which is more and more discussed for heay-duty applications. Now it’s the time for a broader market introduction of hydrogen and hydrogen-based fuels in the mobility sector and thus, for cost reduction due the corresponding scale-effects.

Oxymethylene Dimethyl Ethers (OMEs) are promising diesel fuel alternatives and interesting solvents for various industrial applications. In this report, a well-to-wheel life cycle assessment of short OME oligomers as produced via a Power-to-Liquid (PtL) pathway has been conducted. Variations in electricity and carbon dioxide supply as well as the hardware demand for the PtL plant components (e.g. PEM water electrolysis, carbon capturing, and 36 kta OME plant capacity) have been considered. Conventional diesel fuel is used as the comparative benchmark. In scenarios with a high share of renewable electricity well-to-wheel greenhouse gas emission for OME3–5 fuel is advantageous compared to fossil diesel. For the best case, well-to-wheel greenhouse gas emissions can be reduced by 86%, corresponding to 29 g(CO2eq) km−1 (OME3–5-fuel) compared to 209 g(CO2eq) km−1 (diesel fuel). However, these results are highly sensitive to the applied method with regard to system multifunctionality. A sensitivity analysis indicates that input electricity at ∼50 g(CO2eq) kWhel−1 enables well-to-wheel greenhouse gas emissions of

The concept of energy from waste is getting popular nowadays across the globe, as being capable of producing multi fuels and value-added products from different fractions of municipal solid waste (MSW). The energy recovery technologies under this concept are anaerobic digestion (AD), pyrolysis, transesterification, refuse derived fuel (RDF) and incineration. This concept is very relevant to implementation in countries like Saudi Arabia, who wants to cut their dependence on oil. Moreover, the waste to energy becomes the imperative need of the time because of new governmental policy ‘Vision 2030’ that firmly said to produce renewable energy from indigenous sources of waste, wind and solar and due to given situations of Hajj and Umrah with massive amounts of waste generation in a short period. This study focused on two waste to energy technologies, AD and pyrolysis for food (40% of MSW) and plastic (20% of MSW) waste streams respectively. The energy potential of 1409.63 and 5619.80 TJ can be produced if all of the food and plastic waste of the Madinah city are processed through AD and pyrolysis respectively. This is equivalent to 15.64 and 58.81 MW from biogas and pyrolytic oil respectively or total 74.45 MW of continuous electricity supply in Madinah city throughout the whole year. It has been estimated that the development of AD and pyrolysis technologies will also benefit the economy with net savings of around US $63.51 and US $53.45 million respectively, totaling to an annual benefit of US $116.96 million. Therefore, in Saudi Arabia and particularly in Holiest cities of Makkah and Madinah the benefits of waste to energy are several, including the development of renewable-energy, solving MSW problems, new businesses, and job creation and improving environmental and public health.

This paper aims to examine the potential of waste biorefineries in developing countries as a solution to current waste disposal problems and as facilities to produce fuels, power, heat, and value-added products. The waste in developing countries represents a significant source of biomass, recycled materials, chemicals, energy, and revenue if wisely managed and used as a potential feedstock in various biorefinery technologies such as fermentation, anaerobic digestion (AD), pyrolysis, incineration, and gasification. However, the selection or integration of biorefinery technologies in any developing country should be based on its waste characterization. Waste biorefineries if developed in developing countries could provide energy generation, land savings, new businesses and consequent job creation, savings of landfills costs, GHG emissions reduction, and savings of natural resources of land, soil, and groundwater. The challenges in route to successful implementation of biorefinery concept in the developing countries are also presented using life cycle assessment (LCA) studies.

Waste-to-energy (WTE) is a viable option for municipal solid waste (MSW) management and a renewable energy source. MSW is a chronic problem in Saudi Arabia and more specifically in Saudi Urban areas. The MSW practices in KSA are simply done by collecting the waste and dumping it in open landfill sites. KSA is considering WTE as a potential renewable energy source that can contribute to electricity demand in the Kingdom. This research aims to assess potential contribution of WTE facility to meet electricity demand in the three main cities in the Western Province of Saudi Arabia and to provide an alternative solution to landfills. Three scenarios for WTE utilization were developed: Mass Burn, Mass Burn with recycling, and refused derived fuel (RDF) with biomethanation. The Mass Burn scenario implies full waste stream incineration; the Mass Burn with recycling scenario considers segregation of reusable materials and the waste leftover for incineration; while RDF with biomethanation considers segregation of general waste stream into inorganic and organic waste and utilizes organic waste for biomethanation and inorganic for RDF. The analyses were completed for Jeddah, Makkah, and Madina cities; with current total population of about 6.3 million. The results show that Jeddah has the potential to produce about 180 MW of electricity based on incineration scenario; about 11.25 MW based on incineration with recycling scenario; and about 87.3 MW based RDF with biomethanation scenario by the year 2032. These values and other two cities values are based on theoretical ideals and they help in identifying the optimal WTE techniques for each city.

Sorghum Bagasse in recent years has emerged as a promising feedstock for production of biofuels and value-added products following various biological conversion pathways. However, adequate conservation is critical for utilising Sorghum Bagasse as a feedstock for fuel production around the year in bioenergy plants. Therefore, this study aims to examine the pressure drop as a function of airflow velocity and construct Shedd's curves for energy Sorghum Bagasse. The ambition was to facilitate large-scale drying systems for biomass conservation. The Bagasse was prepared by extracting the juice from the harvested sorghum and passing through a juicing machine. Afterwards, it was manually chopped and stored on a wooden platform having 2.44 m 2 area in a 55-gallon drum at a depth of 0.57 m. The airflow velocities (0.24–1.32 ms −1 ) caused a pressure drop (9.96–346.23 Pa) across the empty drum. The different pressure drop in the drum containing Sorghum Bagasse (19.92–263.25 Pa) was due to various airflow velocities (0.043–0.799 ms −1 ). Pressure drop was further increased with increasing airflow velocity, and it was found in line with the values of pressure drop for ear and shelled corn, as reported in ASABE standards. Shedd's curves for Sorghum Bagasse samples were developed, as these curves can be used for designing large-scale aeration systems for chopped energy sorghum. The whole production chain of biofuel by conserving biomass can be improved by the findings of this work, thus allowing the biomass to be used more economically around the year in bioenergy plants.

Oxymethylene Dimethyl Ethers (OME) are promising diesel fuel alternatives and interesting solvents for various industrial applications. In this report (Reproduced from [Hank et al. 2019] with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry), a well-to-wheel Life Cycle Assessment of short OME oligomers as produced via a Power-to-Liquid (PtL) pathway has been conducted. Variations in electricity and carbon dioxide supply as well as the hardware demand for the PtL plant components (e.g. PEM water electrolysis, carbon capturing, 36 kta OME plant capacity) have been considered. Conventional diesel fuel is used as the comparative benchmark.

The city of Makkah in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) hosts millions of Muslim worshippers every year. As a consequence, the municipal solid waste (MSW) quantities become enormous. City landfills receive about 2.4 thousand tons of MSW every day, whilst during the months of fasting (Ramadan) and Pilgrimage (Hajj), these quantities become 3.1 and 4.6 thousand tons per day respectively. Currently, there is no waste-based biorefinery or waste-to-energy (WTE) facility existing in KSA to treat different fractions of MSW as a source of renewable energy production and a solution to landfill waste problems. Therefore, the waste-based biorefinery, if developed in Makkah city, including WTE technologies such as anaerobic digestion (AD), transesterification, pyrolysis and refuse derived fuel (RDF) can be able to treat around 87.8% of the total MSW. The remaining 12.2% of MSW fraction can be recycled. The waste-based biorefinery, along with the recycling approach, can generate savings of about 87.6 million Saudi Arabian Riyal (SAR) from carbon credits. Similarly, a total net revenue of 758 million SAR can be generated from landfill diversion (530.4 million SAR) and electricity generation (288.5 million SAR). Moreover, 1.95 million barrels of oil and 11.2 million MCF of natural gas can be saved with a cost savings of 485.5 million SAR. Collectively, the waste-based biorefinery and recycling can reduce the global warming potential (GWP) of 1.15 million Mt.CO2 eq.

This paper reviews the status of microbial electrolysis cells (MEC) as a mean for hydrogen (H2) production and urban wastewater treatment method. A case study of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) under MEC concept was developed. KSA is the world’s third largest per capita water user country with no lakes and rivers. Every year, around 1.17 and 0.38 billion m3 of domestic and industrial wastewater is generated respectively. The KSA government is seeking sustainable solutions for wastewater treatment and waste-to-energy (WTE) production to bridge the ever increasing water and energy demand-supply gap. However, there is no WTE facility exists to convert the wastewater into energy. Moreover, the potential of wastewater is not examined as an energy recovery substrate. This study, for the first time, estimated that a total electricity of 434 MWe can be produced in 2015 from the KSA’s wastewater if MEC technology is employed. Similarly, an estimated total electricity of 612 and 767 MWe can be produced for the years 2025 and 2035 from the domestic and industrial wastewater by using MEC technology. A surplus electricity of 508 and 637 MWe for the years 2025 and 2035 respectively can be added to the national grid after fulfilling the energy requirement of MEC wastewater treatment plants. Collectively, MEC will contribute 20.4% and 25.6% share of the KSA government’s WTE target of 3G W in 2025 and 2035 respectively. A number of challenges in MEC such as ohmic and concentration losses, saturation kinetics and competing reactions that lower the H2 production are discussed with their potential solutions including, the improvements in MEC design and the use of appropriate electrolytes, antibiotics and air or oxygen.

Millions of Muslims from all over the world visit the Holy Cities of Saudi Arabia: Makkah and Madinah every year to worship in form of Pilgrimage (Hajj) and Umrah. The rapid growth in local population, urbanization, and living standards in Makkah city along with continually increasing number of visitors result in huge municipal solid waste generation every year. Most of this waste is disposed to landfills or dumpsites without material or energy recovery, thus posing substantial environmental and health risks. The municipal plastic waste is the second largest waste stream (up to 23% of total municipal waste) that is comprised of plastic bottles, water cups, food plates, and shopping bags. The sustainable disposal of plastic waste is challenging task due to its clogging effects, very slow biodegradation rates, and presence of toxic additives and dyes. Pyrolysis is one of the promising waste-to-energy technology for converting municipal plastic waste into energy (liquid fuel) and value-added products...

Energy consumption in KSA (kingdom of Saudi Arabia) is growing rapidly due to economic development with raised levels of population, urbanization and living standards. Fossil fuels are currently solely used to meet the energy requirements. The KSA government have planned to double its energy generating capacity (upto 120 GW (gigawatts)) by 2032. About half of the electricity capacity of this targeted energy will come from renewable resources such as nuclear, wind, solar, WTE (waste-to-energy) etc. Natural zeolites are found abundantly in KSA at Jabal Shamah occurrence near Jeddah city, whose characteristics have never been investigated in energy related applications. This research aims to study the physical and chemical characteristics of natural zeolite in KSA and to review its potential utilization in selected WTE technologies and solar energy. The standard zeolite group of alumina–silicate minerals were found with the presence of other elements such as Na, Mg and K etc. A highly crystalline structure and thermal stability of natural zeolites together with unique ion exchange, adsorption properties, high surface area and porosity make them suitable in energy applications such as WTE and solar energy as an additive or catalyst. A simple solid–gas absorption system for storing solar energy in natural zeolites will be a cheap alternative method for KSA. In AD (anaerobic digestion), the dual characteristics of natural zeolite like Mordenite will increase the CH4 production of OFMSW (organic fraction of municipal solid waste). Further investigations are recommended to study the technical, economical, and environmental feasibility of natural zeolite utilization in WTE technologies in KSA.

This paper reviews the global status of waste to energy (WTE) technologies as a mean for renewable energy production and municipal solid waste (MSW) disposal method. A case study of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) under this concept was developed. The WTE opportunities in the KSA is undertaken in the context of two scenarios: (1) incineration and (2) refuse derived fuel (RDF) along with biomethanation from 2012 to 2035. Biomethanation technology can proved to be the most suitable WTE technology for KSA due to (a) availability of high food waste volume (37% of total MSW) that can be used as a feedstock, (b) higher efficiency (25–30%) and (c) lowest annual capital ($0.1–0.14/ton) and operational cost. However, the need for large space for continuous operation might increase operational cost. The RDF has an advantage over incineration due to (a) less annual capital ($7.5–11.3/ton) and (b) operational cost ($0.3–0.55/ton), but the high labor skills requirements will most probably be a limitation, if appropriate training and related infrastructure are not scheduled to be included as a prerequisite. The incineration technology also proves to be an efficient solution with a relatively higher efficiency (25%) and lower operational cost ($1.5–2.5/ton). However, the need for treatment of air and waterborne pollutants and ash within the incineration facility can be the limiting factors for the development of this technology in KSA. In 2012, the power generation potential for KSA was estimated at 671 MW and 319.4 MW from incineration and RDF with biomethanation scenarios respectively, which was forecasted to reach upto 1447 MW and 699.76 MW for both scenarios respectively by 2035. Therefore, WTE technologies, could make a substantial contribution to the renewable energy production in KSA as well as alleviating the cost of landfilling and its associated environmental impacts. However, the decision to select between the two scenarios requires further in-depth financial, technical and environmental analysis using life cycle assessment (LCA) tool.

This paper aims to determine the waste-to-energy (WTE) and recycling value of municipal solid waste (MSW) for developing an integrated solid waste management (ISWM) system for Lahore, the s...

Toward diversifying the sources of electricity and ensuring the sustainability of power generation, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) is proposing an impressive plan for renewable energy utilization including waste-to-energy (WTE) facilities. The environmental values of WTE facilities in KSA have never been investigated. This research forecasted the potential environmental values of WTE facilities in KSA in the context of energy demand, greenhouse gas emission, and landfill area in comparison with complete landfilling option up to year 2032. Two scenarios were developed: Mass Burn with Recycling and Mass Burn. The research results have shown magnificent environmental values for WTE facilities. The Mass Burn with Recycling scenario shows potential energy demand reduction of about 55.6 million barrels of crude oil, greenhouse gas emission reduction of about 15.2 million metric ton carbon equivalent per year (MTCE/year), and landfill area saving of about 95.3 % in comparison with complete landfilling. Mass Burn scenario shows potential energy demand reduction of about 9.9 million barrels of crude oil, greenhouse gas emission reductions of about 4.8 million MTCE/year, and landfill area saving of about 90 % in comparison with landfilling. This research results shall support Saudi officials’ decision to develop WTE facilities in the Kingdom.

The Gaza Strip faces a chronic solid waste (SW) management and electricity shortage problem as a result of fifty years of political instability in the area coupled with a high population growth rate, an unhealthy economic condition, and limited land and energy resources. The option to develop a waste to energy (WTE) facility to manage SW and to alleviate the electricity shortage has not been previously investigated for the Gaza Strip. This paper assesses the potential environmental and economic benefit of a WTE facility on the context of two scenarios: Mass Burn and Mass Burn with Recycling up to the year 2035. The analysis shows a potential to generate approximately 77.1 Megawatts (MW) of electricity based on a Mass Burn scenario and approximately 4.7 MW of electricity based on a Mass Burn with Recycling scenario. These values are approximately 10.3% and 0.63% respectively of the projected peak electricity demand of 751 MW in 2035. The research identifies the potentially significant environmental benefit of developing WTE facilities within the Gaza Strip. The Mass Burn with Recycling scenario shows a potential greenhouse gases emission reduction of approximately 92 thousand metric tons carbon equivalent (MTCE) per year, and landfill area savings of about 94 % in comparison to complete landfilling in 2035. Further investigation is recommended to evaluate the socio-economic impacts and technical feasibility of the development of WTE facilities for the Gaza Strip.

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) is the largest crude oil producer in the world and possesses the largest oil reserves. The crude oil revenue has resulted in a massive socio-economic development over the last four decades. This situation has resulted in rapid growth of the country’s electricity demand and municipal solid waste (MSW) generation. The KSA is proposing an impressive plan towards renewable energy utilization that includes waste-to-energy (WTE) facilities. This research assesses the potential contribution of WTE facilities to total Saudi peak power demand up to the year 2032 based on two scenarios: Mass Burn and Mass Burn with recycling for the entire country and for six major cities in the KSA. The analysis shows a potential to produce about 2073 Megawatts (MW) based on a Mass Burn scenario and about 166 MW based on Mass Burn with recycling scenario. These values amount to about 1.73% and 0.14% of the projected 2032 peak electricity demand of 120 Gigawatt. The forecasted results of each city from the two scenarios can be used to design future WTE facilities in the main cities of Saudi Arabia. Further investigations are recommended to evaluate the two scenarios based on financial, social, technical, and environmental criteria.

In the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), millions of Muslims come to perform Pilgrimage every year. Around one million ton of municipal solid waste (MSW) is generated in Makkah city annually. The collected MSW is disposed of in the landfills without any treatment or energy recovery. As a result, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and contamination of the soil and water bodies along with leachate and odors are occurring in waste disposal vicinities. The composition of MSW shows that food waste is the largest waste stream (up to 51%) of the total generated MSW. About 13% of the food waste consists of fat content that is equivalent to about 64 thousand tons per year. This study aims to estimate the production potential of biodiesel first time in Makkah city from fat/oil fractions of MSW and highlight its economic and environmental benefits. It has been estimated that 62.53, 117.15 and 6.38 thousand tons of biodiesel, meat and bone meal (MBM) and glycerol respectively could be produced in 2014. A total electricity potential of 852 Gigawatt hour (GWh) from all three sources based on their energy contents, Higher Heating Value (HHV) of 40.17, 18.33 and 19 MJ/kg, was estimated for 2014 that will increase up to 1777 GWh in 2050. The cumulative net savings from landfill waste diversion (256 to 533 million Saudi Riyal (SAR)), carbon credits (46 to 96 million SAR), fuel savings (146 to 303 million SAR) and electricity generation (273 to 569 million SAR) have a potential to add a total net revenue of 611 to 1274 million SAR every year to the Saudi economy, from 2014 to 2050 respectively. However, further studies including real-time data about annual slaughtering activities and the amount of waste generation and its management are critical to decide optimum waste management practices based on life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle costing (LCC) methodologies.

Hydrogen (H2) has emerged as a promising alternative fuel that can be produced from renewable resources including organic waste through biological processes. In the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), the annual generation rate of municipal solid waste (MSW) is around 15 million tons that average around 1.4 kg per capita per day. Similalry, a significant amount of industrial and agricultural waste is generated every year in KSA. Most of these wastes are disposed in landfills or dumpsites after partial segregation and recycling and without material or energy recovery. This causes environmental pollution and release of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions along with public health problems. Therefore, the scope of producing renewable H2 energy from domestic and industrial waste sources is promising in KSA, as no waste-to-energy (WTE) facility exists. This chapter reviews the biological and chemical ways of H2 production from waste sources and availability of waste resources in KSA.

The Eastern Province of the Kingdom Saudi Arabia is the most important region economically and has a total population of about 6 million. The region witnessed massive socio-economic development over the last four decades which has produced substantial increase in municipal solid waste (MSW) generation and electricity demand. This research assesses the potential value of Waste-to-Energy (WTE) in alleviating the MSW and electricity demand challenges in the region. Two scenarios for WTE deployment were developed and projected up to the year 2035: The first scenario is Mass Burn and the second is Mass Burn with Recycling. The Mass Burn scenario implies complete incineration of the waste stream while Mass Burn with Recycling considers segregation of reusable materials and incinerates the leftover of the waste stream. The annual MSW generation was about 3 million ton/year. The MSW consists of organic food, agriculture and garden waste (48.21%), paper and cardboard (1.03%), plastics (5.8%), glass (6.8%), wood (9.63%) textiles (5.77%) and others (22.31%). The study shows that the Mass Burn scenario has the potential to generate about 272 MW of electricity in 2035, while Mass Burn with Recycling has the potential to generate about 81 MW. The potential electrical generation coupled with the environmental values of the WTE, shows the substantial benefits of WTE facilities to eastern region. The results shall assist the decision makers in the region to deploy WTE facility in the region. Further investigations are recommended to evaluate the two scenarios based on socio-economic, technical, and environmental criteria.

Current global Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) generation level is 1.3 billion tons per year, and is expected to increase to approximately 2.2 billion tons per year in 2025. This amount may result in significant health, environmental, aesthetic, land-use resources, and economic concerns if not managed properly. Waste to Energy (WTE) is a viable option for disposal of MSW and energy generation. This paper presents a brief review of WTE technologies; reviews the current market status of the WTE; and forecasts the potential global annual investment in this sector. The research findings show that incineration is the dominant technology utilized to date. Advanced technologies such as Plasma Arc Gasification are gaining momentum in developed countries, whereas biomethanation technology is expanding at a high rate in developing countries in the last decade. Globally, WTE will play a significant role in minimizing MSW challenges and will contribute to the emerging renewable energy market in the near future.

Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) management is a chronic environmental and economic problem in urban areas worldwide and more specifically in developing countries. Waste-to-Energy (WTE) technologies show a great potential to convert this problem to a revenue source. Pyrolysis is a promising technology and is currently utilized in many regions of the world for MSW disposal and energy generation. The economic value of pyrolysis has been insufficiently evaluated. This paper introduces and discusses the economic value of pyrolysis as MSW management disposal method and energy source. The return period of investments is considered for various pricing policies with respect to end product of process. Hypotheses and conclusions of the model works are briefly reported.