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Background: Vitamin D deficiency in Saudi Arabia is alarmingly high and can affect all human ages. However, the characteristic hormonal and metabolic features, and the systemic Vitamin D levels, among Saudi women with polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) remain largely unknown. Aims: This retrospective study aimed to identify the hormonal, metabolic, and Vitamin D status variabilities among infertile Saudi women with PCOS versus those of non-PCOS fertile women as controls. Materials and Methods: The medical records of a total of 99 women (49 PCOS and 50 controls), with matched age and body mass index, were analyzed in this study. For each woman who met the study inclusion criteria, the analyzed parameters included the serum levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH) D), sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG), prolactin, luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), androgen, total testosterone (TT), estradiol, progesterone, thyroid hormones, the fasting plasma glucose (FPG), and lipid profile concentrations. Results: Compared to the controls, women with PCOS had significantly lower levels of 25(OH) D, SHBG, FSH, and estradiol, but they had significantly higher levels of LH, androgen, TT, FPG, total cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol. There were no differences between the two groups regarding the other parameters. Conclusions: The present findings highlight the prevalence of sex hormones, metabolic, and Vitamin D status disturbances among Saudi women with PCOS. Large-scale retrospective and prospective studies are therefore essential to realize these findings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Pcal and ω-3 monotherapies moderately attenuated hyperglycaemia and dyslipidaemia. • Pcal and ω-3 monotherapies equally reduced renal oxidative stress and inflammation. • Pcal/ω-3 co-therapy showed enhanced anti-diabetic and renoprotection effects. • Co-therapy may induce boosted metabolic, anti-oxidative & anti-inflammatory actions. Although the synthetic vitamin D analogue, Paricalcitol, and omega-3 Fatty acids (ω-3) alleviated diabetic nephropathy (DN), their combination was not previously explored. This study measured the potential ameliorative effects of single and dual therapies of Paricalcitol and/or ω-3 against DN. Forty rats were assigned as follow: negative (NC) and positive (PC) controls, Paricalcitol, ω-3 and Paricalcitol + ω-3 groups. Diabetes was generated by high-fat/high-fructose diet and a single streptozotocin injection (40 mg/kg). DN was confirmed by raised fasting blood glucose (FBG), polyuria, proteinuria, and decreased urine creatinine levels. Paricalcitol intraperitoneal injections (0.25 µg/Kg/day; 5 times/week) and oral ω-3 (415 mg/kg/day; 5 times/week) started at week-9 and for eight weeks. The PC group showed hyperglycaemia, dyslipidaemia, abnormal renal biochemical parameters, elevated caspase-3 expression, and increased apoptosis by TUNEL technique. The mRNAs and proteins of the pathogenic molecules (TGF-β1/iNOS) and markers of tissue damage (NGAL/KIM-1) augmented substantially in the PC renal tissues relative to the NC group. The oxidative stress (MDA/H 2 O 2 /protein carbonyl groups) and pro-inflammatory (IL1β/IL6/TNF-α) markers increased, whereas the anti-inflammatory (IL10) and anti-oxidative (GSH/GPx1/GR/SOD1/CAT) declined, in the PC renal tissues. The monotherapy groups were associated with ameliorated FBG, lipid profile and renal functions, and diminished TGF-β1/iNOS/NGAL/KIM-1/Caspase-3 alongside the apoptotic index than the PC group. The oxidative stress and pro-inflammatory markers decreased, whilst the anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory molecules escalated, in the monotherapy groups than the PC group. Although the Paricalcitol renoprotective actions were better than ω-3, all the biomarkers were abnormal than the NC group. Alternatively, the Paricalcitol + ω-3 protocol exhibited the best improvements in metabolic control, renal functions, oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis. However, FBG and tissue damage were persistently higher in the co-therapy group than controls. Both monotherapies showed modest efficacy against DN, whereas their combination displayed boosted renoprotection, possibly by enhancing renal anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory pathways. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]