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Training is known to improve our ability to make decisions when interacting in complex environments. However, individuals vary in their ability to learn new tasks and acquire new skills in different settings. Here, we test whether this variability in learning ability relates to individual brain oscillatory states. We use a visual flicker paradigm to entrain individuals at their own brain rhythm (i.e. peak alpha frequency) as measured by resting-state electroencephalography (EEG). We demonstrate that this individual frequency-matched brain entrainment results in faster learning in a visual identification task (i.e. detecting targets embedded in background clutter) compared to entrainment that does not match an individual's alpha frequency. Further, we show that learning is specific to the phase relationship between the entraining flicker and the visual target stimulus. EEG during entrainment showed that individualized alpha entrainment boosts alpha power, induces phase alignment in the pre-stimulus period, and results in shorter latency of early visual evoked potentials, suggesting that brain entrainment facilitates early visual processing to support improved perceptual decisions. These findings suggest that individualized brain entrainment may boost perceptual learning by altering gain control mechanisms in the visual cortex, indicating a key role for individual neural oscillatory states in learning and brain plasticity.

Translating noisy sensory signals to perceptual decisions is critical for successful interactions in complex environments. Learning is known to improve perceptual judgments by filtering external noise and task-irrelevant information. Yet, little is known about the brain mechanisms that mediate learning-dependent suppression. Here, we employ ultra-high field magnetic resonance spectroscopy of GABA to test whether suppressive processing in decision-related and visual areas facilitates perceptual judgments during training. We demonstrate that parietal GABA relates to suppression of task-irrelevant information, while learning-dependent changes in visual GABA relate to enhanced performance in target detection and feature discrimination tasks. Combining GABA measurements with functional brain connectivity demonstrates that training on a target detection task involves local connectivity and disinhibition of visual cortex, while training on a feature discrimination task involves inter-cortical interactions that relate to suppressive visual processing. Our findings provide evidence that learning optimizes perceptual decisions through suppressive interactions in decision-related networks.

It is common wisdom that practice makes perfect; but why do some adults learn better than others? Here, we investigate individuals’ cognitive and social profiles to test which variables account for variability in learning ability across the lifespan. In particular, we focused on visual learning using tasks that test the ability to inhibit distractors and select task-relevant features. We tested the ability of young and older adults to improve through training in the discrimination of visual global forms embedded in a cluttered background. Further, we used a battery of cognitive tasks and psycho-social measures to examine which of these variables predict training-induced improvement in perceptual tasks and may account for individual variability in learning ability. Using partial least squares regression modelling, we show that visual learning is influenced by cognitive (i.e. cognitive inhibition, attention) and social (strategic and deep learning) factors rather than an individual’s age alone. Further, our results show that independent of age, strong learners rely on cognitive factors such as attention, while weaker learners use more general cognitive strategies. Our findings suggest an important role for higher-cognitive circuits involving executive functions that contribute to our ability to improve in perceptual tasks after training across the lifespan.

Previous experience is thought to facilitate our ability to extract spatial and temporal regularities from cluttered scenes. However, little is known about how we may use this knowledge to predict future events. Here we test whether exposure to temporal sequences facilitates the visual recognition of upcoming stimuli. We presented observers with a sequence of leftwards and rightwards oriented gratings that was interrupted by a test stimulus. Observers were asked to indicate whether the orientation of the test stimulus matched their expectation based on the preceding sequence. Our results demonstrate that exposure to temporal sequences without feedback facilitates our ability to predict an upcoming stimulus. In particular, observers' performance improved following exposure to structured but not random sequences. Improved performance lasted for a prolonged period and generalized to untrained stimulus orientations rather than sequences of different global structure, suggesting that observers acquire knowledge of the sequence structure rather than its items. Further, this learning was compromised when observers performed a dual task resulting in increased attentional load. These findings suggest that exposure to temporal regularities in a scene allows us to accumulate knowledge about its global structure and predict future events.

Learning and experience are critical for translating ambiguous sensory information from our environments to perceptual decisions. Yet evidence on how training molds the adult human brain remains controversial, as fMRI at standard resolution does not allow us to discern the finer scale mechanisms that underlie sensory plasticity. Here, we combine ultra-high-field (7T) functional imaging at sub-millimeter resolution with orientation discrimination training to interrogate experience-dependent plasticity across cortical depths that are known to support dissociable brain computations. We demonstrate that learning alters orientation-specific representations in superficial rather than middle or deeper V1 layers, consistent with recurrent plasticity mechanisms via horizontal connections. Further, learning increases feedforward rather than feedback layer-to-layer connectivity in occipito-parietal regions, suggesting that sensory plasticity gates perceptual decisions. Our findings reveal finer scale plasticity mechanisms that re-weight sensory signals to inform improved decisions, bridging the gap between micro- and macro-circuits of experience-dependent plasticity.

Summary Learning and experience are critical for translating ambiguous sensory information from our environments to perceptual decisions. Yet evidence on how training molds the adult human brain remains controversial, as fMRI at standard resolution does not allow us to discern the finer scale mechanisms that underlie sensory plasticity. Here, we combine ultra-high-field (7T) functional imaging at sub-millimeter resolution with orientation discrimination training to interrogate experience-dependent plasticity across cortical depths that are known to support dissociable brain computations. We demonstrate that learning alters orientation-specific representations in superficial rather than middle or deeper V1 layers, consistent with recurrent plasticity mechanisms via horizontal connections. Further, learning increases feedforward rather than feedback layer-to-layer connectivity in occipito-parietal regions, suggesting that sensory plasticity gates perceptual decisions. Our findings reveal finer scale plasticity mechanisms that re-weight sensory signals to inform improved decisions, bridging the gap between micro- and macro-circuits of experience-dependent plasticity., Highlights • Discrimination training alters orientation representations in superficial V1 layers • Orientation-specific V1 plasticity is independent of task context • Discrimination training alters orientation representations in middle IPS layers • Learning enhances feedforward connectivity from visual to parietal cortex, Using high-field laminar fMRI, Jia et al. show that learning alters orientation-specific representations in superficial V1 layers and enhances connectivity from visual to parietal cortex, suggesting that recurrent visual plasticity and feedforward connectivity gate perceptual decision making.

Recent modelling studies (Hadjipapas et al. [2009]: Neuroimage 44:1290-1303) have shown that it may be possible to distinguish between different neuronal populations on the basis of their macroscopically measured (EEG/MEG) mean field. We set out to test whether the different orientation columns contributing to a signal at a specific cortical location could be identified based on the measured MEG signal. We used 1.5deg square, static, obliquely oriented grating stimuli to generate sustained gamma oscillations in a focal region of primary visual cortex. We then used multivariate classifier methods to predict the orientation (left or right oblique) of the stimuli based purely on the time-series data from this one location. Both the single trial evoked response (0–300 ms) and induced post-transient power spectra (300–2,300 ms, 20–70 Hz band) due to the different stimuli were classifiable significantly above chance in 11/12 and 10/12 datasets respectively. Interestingly, stimulus-specific information is preserved in the sustained part of the gamma oscillation, long after perception has occurred and all neuronal transients have decayed. Importantly, the classification of this induced oscillation was still possible even when the power spectra were rank-transformed showing that the different underlying networks give rise to different characteristic temporal signatures. Hum Brain Mapp, 2010. © 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Summary Visually guided behavior depends on (1) extracting and (2) discriminating signals from complex retinal inputs, and these perceptual skills improve with practice [1]. For instance, training on aerial reconnaissance facilitated World War II Allied military operations [2]; analysts pored over stereoscopic photographs, becoming expert at (1) segmenting pictures into meaningful items to break camouflage from (noisy) backgrounds, and (2) discriminating fine details to distinguish V-weapons from innocuous pylons. Training is understood to optimize neural circuits that process scene features (e.g., orientation) for particular purposes (e.g., judging position) [3–6]. Yet learning is most beneficial when it generalizes to other settings [7, 8] and is critical in recovery after adversity [9], challenging understanding of the circuitry involved. Here we used repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) to infer the functional organization supporting learning generalization in the human brain. First, we show dissociable contributions of the posterior parietal cortex (PPC) versus lateral occipital (LO) circuits: extracting targets from noise is disrupted by PPC stimulation, in contrast to judging feature differences, which is affected by LO rTMS. Then, we demonstrate that training causes striking changes in this circuit: after feature training, identifying a target in noise is not disrupted by PPC stimulation but instead by LO stimulation. This indicates that training shifts the limits on perception from parietal to ventral brain regions and identifies a critical neural circuit for visual learning. We suggest that generalization is implemented by supplanting dynamic processing conducted in the PPC with specific feature templates stored in the ventral cortex., Highlights • Before training, dorsal, but not ventral, rTMS disrupts perception in noisy displays • Training on fine differences boosts feature templates, facilitating detection in noise • After training, ventral, but not dorsal, rTMS becomes disruptive for targets in noise • Functional reweighting of dorsal and ventral circuits supports learning transfer, Using TMS in human subjects, Chang et al. reveal differential roles of parietal and ventral cortex in extracting and discriminating visual targets, respectively. Training on fine discriminations causes a reweighting of the circuit: following learning, ventral, not parietal, activity determines target extraction task performance.

Highlights • Exposure to temporal sequences improves prediction of future events. • Learning to predict from temporal sequences generalizes to untrained stimuli. • Learning to predict is sensitive to the global structure of the trained sequence. • Learning to predict is compromised by increased attentional load., Previous experience is thought to facilitate our ability to extract spatial and temporal regularities from cluttered scenes. However, little is known about how we may use this knowledge to predict future events. Here we test whether exposure to temporal sequences facilitates the visual recognition of upcoming stimuli. We presented observers with a sequence of leftwards and rightwards oriented gratings that was interrupted by a test stimulus. Observers were asked to indicate whether the orientation of the test stimulus matched their expectation based on the preceding sequence. Our results demonstrate that exposure to temporal sequences without feedback facilitates our ability to predict an upcoming stimulus. In particular, observers’ performance improved following exposure to structured but not random sequences. Improved performance lasted for a prolonged period and generalized to untrained stimulus orientations rather than sequences of different global structure, suggesting that observers acquire knowledge of the sequence structure rather than its items. Further, this learning was compromised when observers performed a dual task resulting in increased attentional load. These findings suggest that exposure to temporal regularities in a scene allows us to accumulate knowledge about its global structure and predict future events.