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Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive degenerative disease manifested by tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia, and postural instability. Deficits in proprioceptive integration are prevalent in individuals with PD, even at early stages of the disease. These deficits have been demonstrated primarily during investigations of reaching. Here, we investigated how PD affects sensory fusion of multiple modalities during upright standing. We simultaneously perturbed upright stance with visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive stimulation, to understand how these modalities are reweighted so that overall feedback remains suited to stabilizing upright stance in individuals with PD. Eight individuals with PD stood in a visual cave with a moving visual scene at 0.2 Hz while an 80-Hz vibratory stimulus was applied bilaterally to their Achilles tendons (stimulus turns on-off at 0.28 Hz) and a ±1 mA bilateral monopolar galvanic stimulus was applied at 0.36 Hz. The visual stimulus was presented at different amplitudes (0.2°, 0.8° rotation about ankle axis) to measure: the change in gain (weighting) to vision, an intramodal effect; and a simultaneous change in gain to vibration and galvanic stimulation, both intermodal effects. Trunk/leg gain relative to vision decreased when visual amplitude was increased, reflecting an intramodal visual effect. In contrast, when vibration was turned on/off, leg gain relative to vision was equivalent in individuals with PD, indicating no reweighting of visual information when proprioception was disrupted through vibration (i.e., no intermodal effect). Trunk and leg angle gain relative to GVS also showed no reweighting in individuals with PD. These results are in contrast to previous results with healthy adults, who showed clear intermodal effects in the same paradigm, suggesting that individuals with PD not only have a proprioceptive deficit during standing, but also have a cross-modal sensory fusion deficit that is crucial for upright stance control.

We simultaneously perturbed visual, vestibular and proprioceptive modalities to understand how sensory feedback is re-weighted so that overall feedback remains suited to stabilizing upright stance. Ten healthy young subjects received an 80 Hz vibratory stimulus to their bilateral Achilles tendons (stimulus turns on-off at 0.28 Hz), a ± 1 mA binaural monopolar galvanic vestibular stimulus at 0.36 Hz, and a visual stimulus at 0.2 Hz during standing. The visual stimulus was presented at different amplitudes (0.2, 0.8 deg rotation about ankle axis) to measure: the change in gain (weighting) to vision, an intramodal effect; and a change in gain to vibration and galvanic vestibular stimulation, both intermodal effects. The results showed a clear intramodal visual effect, indicating a de-emphasis on vision when the amplitude of visual stimulus increased. At the same time, an intermodal visual-proprioceptive reweighting effect was observed with the addition of vibration, which is thought to change proprioceptive inputs at the ankles, forcing the nervous system to rely more on vision and vestibular modalities. Similar intermodal effects for visual-vestibular reweighting were observed, suggesting that vestibular information is not a "fixed" reference, but is dynamically adjusted in the sensor fusion process. This is the first time, to our knowledge, that the interplay between the three primary modalities for postural control has been clearly delineated, illustrating a central process that fuses these modalities for accurate estimates of self-motion.

To control upright stance, the human nervous system must estimate the movements of multiple body segments based on multisensory information. To investigate how visual information contributes to such multisegmental estimation, participants were exposed to 3 types of visual-scene movement: translation in the anteroposterior direction, rotation about the ankle joint, and rotation about the hip joint. Trunk and leg responses were larger for rotational than for translational movements, but only at lower stimulus frequencies. Based on a feedback-control theoretical framework, these results indicated that visual inputs distinguish between translation and rotation of the head. Also, visual condition effects were similar for the leg and trunk segments, suggesting a control strategy with a single control signal that determines the activation of all muscles., (Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC)

Vision can improve bipedal upright stability during standing and locomotion. However, during locomotion, vision supports additional behaviors such as gait cycle modulation, navigation, and obstacle avoidance. Here, we investigate how the multiple roles of vision are reflected in the dynamics of trunk control as the neural control problem changes from a fixed to a moving base of support. Subjects were presented with either low- or high-amplitude broadband visual stimuli during standing posture or while walking on a treadmill at 1 km/h and 5 km/h. Frequency response functions between visual scene motion (input) and trunk kinematics (output) revealed little or no change in the gain of trunk orientation in the standing posture and walking conditions. However, a dramatic increase in gain was observed in trunk (hip and shoulder) horizontal displacement from posture to locomotion. Such increases in gain may be interpreted as an increased coupling to visual scene motion. However, we believe that the increased gain reflects a decrease in stability due to a change of the control problem from standing to locomotion. Indeed, keeping the body upright with the use of vision during walking is complicated by the additional locomotor processes at work. Unlike during standing, vision plays many roles during locomotion, providing information for upright stability as well as body position relative to the external environment.

Recent models of human postural control have focused on the nonlinear properties inherent to fusing sensory information from multiple modalities. In general, these models are underconstrained, requiring additional experimental data to clarify the properties of such nonlinearities. Here we report an experiment suggesting that new or multiple mechanisms may be needed to capture the integration of vision into the postural control scheme. Subjects were presented with visual displays whose motion consisted of two components: a constant-amplitude, 0.2 Hz oscillation, and constant-velocity translation from left to right at velocities between 0 cm/s and 4 cm/s. Postural sway variability increased systematically with translation velocity, but remained below that observed in the eyes-closed condition, indicating that the postural control system is able to use visual information to stabilize sway even at translation velocities as high as 4 cm/s. Gain initially increased as translation velocity increased from 0 cm/s to 1 cm/s and then decreased. The changes in gain and variability provided a clear indication of nonlinearity in the postural response across conditions, which were interpreted in terms of sensory reweighting. The fact that gain did not decrease at low translation velocities suggests that the postural control system is able to decompose relative visual motion into environmental motion and self-motion. The eventual decrease in gain suggests that nonlinearities in sensory noise levels (state-dependent noise) may also contribute to the sensory reweighting involved in postural control. These results provide important constraints and suggest that multiple mechanisms may be required to model the nonlinearities involved in sensory fusion for upright stance control.

We analyze the stochastic structure of postural sway and demonstrate that this structure imposes important constraints on models of postural control. Linear stochastic models of various orders were fit to the center-of-mass trajectories of subjects during quiet stance in four sensory conditions: (i) light touch and vision, (ii) light touch, (iii) vision, and (iv) neither touch nor vision. For each subject and condition, the model of appropriate order was determined, and this model was characterized by the eigenvalues and coefficients of its autocovariance function. In most cases, postural-sway trajectories were similar to those produced by a third-order model with eigenvalues corresponding to a slow first-order decay plus a faster-decaying damped oscillation. The slow-decay fraction, which we define as the slow-decay autocovariance coefficient divided by the total variance, was usually near 1. We compare the stochastic structure of our data to two linear control-theory models: (i) a proportional-integral-derivative control model in which the postural system's state is assumed to be known, and (ii) an optimal-control model in which the system's state is estimated based on noisy multisensory information using a Kalman filter. Under certain assumptions, both models have eigenvalues consistent with our results. However, the slow-decay fraction predicted by both models is less than we observe. We show that our results are more consistent with a modification of the optimal-control model in which noise is added to the computations performed by the state estimator. This modified model has a slow-decay fraction near 1 in a parameter regime in which sensory information related to the body's velocity is more accurate than sensory information related to position and acceleration. These findings suggest that: (i) computation noise is responsible for much of the variance observed in postural sway, and (ii) the postural control system under the conditions tested resides in the regime of accurate velocity information.

In human and animal locomotion, sensory input is thought to be processed in a phase-dependent manner. Here we use full-field transient visual scene motion toward or away from subjects walking on a treadmill. Perturbations were presented at three phases of walking to test 1) whether phase dependence is observed for visual input and 2) whether the nature of phase dependence differs across body segments. Results demonstrated that trunk responses to approaching perturbations were only weakly phase dependent and instead depended primarily on the delay from the perturbation. Recording of kinematic and muscle responses from both right and left lower limb allowed the analysis of six distinct phases of perturbation effects. In contrast to the trunk, leg responses were strongly phase dependent. Leg responses during the same gait cycle as the perturbation exhibited gating, occurring only when perturbations were applied in midstance. In contrast, during the postperturbation gait cycle, leg responses occurred at similar response phases of the gait cycle over a range of perturbation phases. These distinct responses reflect modulation of trunk orientation for upright equilibrium and modulation of leg segments for both hazard accommodation/ avoidance and positional maintenance on the treadmill. Overall, these results support the idea that the phase dependence of responses to visual scene motion is determined by different functional tasks during walking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Unexplained falls in older adults are thought to arise from subtle deficits in multiple components of the postural control system, including peripheral sensory loss and central sensory processing. One commonly proposed central sensory processing deficit is a decline in the adaptive use of changing or conflicting sensory inputs for estimating body dynamics, i.e., multisensory reweighting. We examined the assumption of impaired multisensory reweighting in healthy and fall-prone older adults using quantitative methods that have previously demonstrated reweighting in young adults. Standing subjects were exposed to simultaneous medio-lateral oscillatory visual and fingertip touch inputs at varying relative amplitudes. No group differences in overall levels of vision and touch gain were found. Both healthy and fall-prone older adults demonstrated the same pattern of adaptive gain change as healthy young adults. Like the young adults, both elderly groups displayed clear evidence of intra- and inter-sensory reweighting to both vision and touch motion stimuli. These data suggest that, for small amplitude vision and touch stimuli, the central sensory reweighting adaptation process remains intact in healthy and fall-prone older adults with sufficiently intact peripheral sensation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to compare sensory reweighting for upright stance between soccer players who report higher soccer heading exposure to those who report lower soccer heading exposure. Thirty participants completed a self-reported questionnaire to estimate the number of soccer headers experienced over the previous year and were divided into "low exposure" and "high exposure" groups based on their responses. Sensory reweighting for upright stance was assessed by simultaneously perturbing visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive systems. The visual stimulus was a sinusoidal translation of the visual scene at 0.2 Hz, the vestibular stimulus was ±1mA binaural monopolar galvanic vestibular stimulation (GVS) at 0.36 Hz, and the proprioceptive stimulus was Achilles tendon vibration at 0.28 Hz. The visual stimulus was presented at two amplitudes (0.2 m, 0.8 m). Center of mass (COM) gain/phase to each modality, total power, 95% area and velocity were compared between low exposure (N = 15, six males, 21.5 ± 1.9 years, 27.7 ± 31.6 headers) and high exposure groups (N = 15, 10 males, 22.1 ± 3.5years, 734.9 ± 877.7 headers). Without vibration, COM 95% area (F = 5.861, p = 0.022*, partial η2 = 0.173), velocity (F = 14.198, p = 0.001, partial η2 = 0.336), and total power (F = 13.491, p = 0.001, partial η2 = 0.325) for the "high exposure" group were higher than for the "low exposure" group, and postural sway lagged the vestibular stimulus in the "high exposure" group rather than leading it as in the "low exposure" group (F = 4.765, p = 0.038, partial η2 = 0.145). There were no differences in sensory reweighting and no differences in COM gain/phase between groups. These findings lend empirical evidence to a detrimental effect of soccer heading exposure on balance control during upright stance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]